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sQ1[1]=new Array("../index.html","MKA Risk - Specialist intervention in Business Risk Mitigation","MKA Risk Mitigation are occupational psychologists for business counselling and training to management and workers, who can mitigate the risk to companies from compensation claims allied with psychological stress and injury, bullying, fatigue, and safety programs practices. MKA Risk Mitigation clients have been building professional human resources and strong substantial workplace by mitigation of psychological risk and successful team performance","What's on this week You can view our nineth newsletter which covers performance managing employees 2005  Cost of Occupational Stress to Employers Cost of Bullying to Employers Cost of Occupational Fatigue to Employers Cost of Poor Performance Management to Employers Press release from WorkplaceOHS Magazine on Changing a Workplace Culture of Bullying MKA Risk Mitigation MKA Risk Mitigation are a group of organisational psychologists, who manage human resources and occupational health and safety risk. The practice focuses on providing training and counselling around team building. The practice specialises in the prevention of occupational stress, bullying and fatigue management. We have a strong background in helping companies develop performance systems which improve team building, occupational health and safety compliance, and reduce psychological injury claims and workplace bullying. All our clients have been successful in securing substantial premium discounts under the NSW Workcover Authority Scheme. Some of our clients have received awards for their exceptional workers compensation performance in the Treasury Managed Funds scheme. We have achieved reductions of 70% to 100% in psychological injury claims for those clients who have implemented our workplace culture change programs and occupational stress prevention programs. These programs have successfully addressed the underlying causes of high incidence of psychological injury claims, poor morale, workers compensation history, inadequate fatigue management, substantial human resources risk and industrial disputation. Our programs have also been used by companies who want to take a currently successful business to the next stage of development. Our objective is to work with our customers on creating positive, performing, professional workplace cultures in which staff can take pride and delight. Our customers include sophisticated organisations with a strong commercial focus and commitment to improving business profitability, quality of working life and team building. Our team consists of professional psychologists and allied health professionals who hold post graduate qualifications in related fields of business and management. They are skilled professionals with many years experience in counselling, organisational consultancy and training. INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[2]=new Array("../products/products01.html","MKA Risk - Products - Workplace Bullying","MKA Risk Mitigation can help to create a positive workplace culture by assisting you to be Saying goodbye to workplace bullying and harassment.","Products Menu items Goodbye Workplace Bullying Fatigue To Energy Occupational Stress Management Employee Assistance Programs Workplace Bullying Saying goodbye to bullying MKA: Risk Mitigation can help to create a positive workplace culture by: Creating Forums for Consultation Developing Policies for Prevention of Harassment and Bullying Creating Codes of Conduct Tailored to Individual Workplaces Policy Implementation and Awareness Training Executive Coaching Providing Anger Management/Assertiveness Counselling Assisting in Performance Management of Workplace Bullies Our products are based on industry surveys, current organisational behaviour research and relevant NSW and Federal Industrial Relations Commission decisions. What is bullying and harassment? Bullying and harassment are so common that they can be regarded as part of every day life. This is not to suggest that employers and workers should ever turn a blind eye to bullying or passively accept harassment as normal behaviour. Bullying can include physical aggression, shouting, name calling, denigrating others for their physical appearance, age, religion, sexual preferences or supposed work capacity. Bullying can cover a range of behaviours, and it is very difficult to define. Bullying will occur when there is a perceived power imbalance, and generally the bigger the imbalance the worse bullying becomes. It is a common phenomenon in workplaces where there is a rigid hierarchy, there is a big age/experience gap, there is intense time pressure and no consultation. Bullying is a particular problem with industries that have apprentices, juniors and associates. Warning signs that bullying is occurring include: High turnover of staff Complaints about management style Complaints about interactions with co-workers High levels of workplace conflict High levels of human resources complaints Greater than usual levels of absenteeism  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[3]=new Array("../members/members01.html","MKA Risk - Conference Papers and Literature Reviews","This section contains the discussion presentations and conference papers that have been written by staff of mka risk mitigation.","Discussion Papers PAPERS Occupational Stress Performance Management Fatigue Management Conflict Resolution Employee Assistance Programs Harassment Prevention Drugs in the Workplace Discussion Papers Conference Papers and Literature Reviews This section contains presentations, discussion papers and conference papers that have been written by the staff of MKA Risk Mitigation.   Martha Knox-Haly at the Safety Show 2005 - MKA: Risk Stand Martha Knox-Haly and Caroline Fisher at the MKA: Risk Stand INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[4]=new Array("../news/news01.html","MKA Risk -  NEWSLETTERS on Risk Management","MKA Risk Mitigation Newsletters with reviews and current articles on performance management, fatigue, workplace bullying, drug and alcohol, court cases and strategies that focuses on workplaces relationships.","News and Events Read the Review of the three cases involving Employer obligations around Occupational Stress and termination of employment. NEWSLETTERS Containing news and information from latest court cases and psychological research Newsletter 3rd Quarter 2006 outlining three cases of Occupational Stress and termination of employment. Newsletter 2nd Quarter 2006 outlining three cases of termination of employment for employees with disabilities, and associated employer obligations around these cases. Newsletter 4th Quarter 2005 describing the Workplace Relations Ammendment Bill 2005 and key points from this bill. Newsletter 3rd Quarter 2005 describing the official recognition by the NSCA for our results from reducing Stress Claims. This newsletter reviews court cases on Occupational Bullying and Legislative Changes. Newsletter 2nd Quarter 2005 describing results of from the latest cases on psychiatric injury. This newsletter also reviews current issues on Fatigue and Bullying. Newsletter 1st Quarter 2005 describing results of from the latest cases on Fatigue Management. This newsletter also reviews Fatigue in comparison with Blood Alcohol levels. Newsletter 4th Quarter 2004 refers to the presentation to the public sector human resources conferences in Sydney and Melbourne This newsletter article focuses on conducting performance management so that workplace relationships can be maintained Newsletter 3rd Quarter 2004 refers to Sydney Morning Herald feature article on the work of MKA Risk Mitigation in creating psychologically safe work places This newsletter deals with the topic of Drug and Alcohol testing standards in Australian workplaces Newsletter 2nd Quarter 2004 describing results of Statewide Occupational Stress Prevention Project resulting in a 74% reduction in psychological injury claims. This newsletter outlines strategies and court cases on fatigue management. Newsletter 1st Quarter 2004 announcing launch of MKA Risk Mitigation. This newsletter addresses the topic of Bullying in the Workplace. INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[5]=new Array("../projects/project01.html","MKA Risk - Successes in Reducing injuries and claims by 98% ","MKA Risk Mitigation Success in Reducing injuries and claims by 98% via project management of workers and management for conflict behaviour issues and injury claims to improve morale, create effective workforce safety and reduce compensation claims.","Projects Case Studies Reducing Claims by 98% at Elf Mushrooms Commercial Farm and achieving the position of a finalist in one of six catergories in the National Safety Council of Australia's annual Awards for Excellence in 2005. Occupational Stress Prevention We believe passionately in the role of psychology within business. Accordingly this project, with the support of the client, was submitted to the 2005 National Safety Council of Australia's annual NCSA / Telstra Awards for Excellence, within one of their six categories. We were delighted that it was chosen as a segment finalist, the only one from small and family business, and we shared the winners' podium with 'biggies in the business', The Benevolent Society and the National Gallery of Australia. These two were respectively the category winner and runner-up and we congratulate them for their projects. We were very complimented that a project like ours could be a finalist in such a national and prestigious forum.  Reducing injuries and claims by 98%. In late 2004, discussions with Elf Mushrooms were conducted because of management’s belief that a morale problem had emerged within the workplace. Following MKA’s Risk Management’s consultation and development of a workplace strategy, injuries and claims dropped by a massive 98%. Although unclear about the cause, management were aware that the morale problem needed to be addressed. There was also a sense that despite management’s ongoing attempts to communicate and share information, the workforce was not listening. Concurrent with the morale problem, was a sudden spike in workers’ compensation claims during the previous twelve months. There were also concerns that workers were not being supportive of their injured colleagues. This in turn was causing challenges in effecting successful return to work programs. It was suggested to management that several steps needed to occur. The first step was to interview injured workers who had been on workers’ compensation, and to invite these workers be part of a peer education program on workers’ compensation. This program would address workers’ obligations under workers’ compensation, and present information about the “realities” of what it is like to be an injured worker in the workers’ compensation system. Specifically, insurance companies take over your pay, so there can often be delays and glitches in processing of wages and reimbursements (because there is a system of accountabilities for insurance companies). It is also necessary to attend medical examinations (which can often be quite gruelling). Then there is the pain of being injured and the impact that this can have on a worker’s family life, not to mention how the problem is intensified with unsupportive work colleagues. In other words, contrary to popular belief, it is no picnic being on workers compensation! Several injured workers were interviewed and were indeed eager to participate in a peer education program. The next step was to for management to nominate additional workers who could be educated as part of a peer communicators’ network. The principal behind this is a common sense one - workers have greater credibility with their peers than management do. From this perspective, properly briefed and informed peer communicators are going to be more effective in getting information about a range of topics out to the workforce. The workforce had a high component of non-English speaking background workers. It became apparent that some workers were relying on their children (who were fluent in English) to obtain information about a range of areas. Consequently a peer communicator was picked from each major language group. To build source credibility, the consultant also went and worked for a half day picking mushrooms. The consultant then introduced herself to the workforce during morning tea. The consultant explained her role and advised that she would be speaking to various workers. The consultant also invited anyone who had questions about the project to approach her privately if they were more comfortable communicating this way. Several workers accepted this offer and did approach the consultant with questions. Although the consultant was quite frankly a disastrously unproductive mushroom picker, the experience of learning the job was invaluable in terms of helping the consultant to understand the workers’ perspective. The next step involved interviewing the nominated peer communicators for each language group. In January 2005, the consultant met with each individual peer communicator and interviewed them about morale within the workplace, and what concerns the workforce was experiencing. The consultant also asked each peer communicator what they would like management to do for the workforce as a whole. It eventuated that morale problems had begun because of an unresolved personal conflict in the workplace, which had occurred eighteen months before. Management were entirely unaware of this conflict and were astonished at the impact it had. This initial conflict had eroded the workforces’ willingness to trust management, as the workers erroneously believed that the manager was aware of the conflict, and that he should have rebuked the initiator of the behaviour. The erosion of trust had meant that the workforce was not prepared to listen openly to information from management about various wage negotiations that occurred ten months later. Mistrust compounded with language difficulties certainly reduced the chances for full communication. Consequently when the wage changes and a bonus system were bought in, sections of the workforce felt mislead. It was very apparent during the interviews that the workforce had no awareness of the fact that they were in fact being paid above award wages. The morale continued to spiral down from there. It was apparent that the situation was about very much more than workers’ compensation. As individuals became increasingly depressed, they were less likely to be careful with safety and look after themselves or others. It was decided that a one day peer communicator program needed to be run. This program would create a discussion forum for all the issues that the peer communicators wanted management to tackle. The communicators raised a number of issues at the workshop. Top of the list was the issue of bullying and competition in the workplace, and a request that management communicate that that such behaviour was unacceptable. Closely related was the issue of how conflict was resolved in the work environment. Then there was the matter of how the bonus system operated, the structure of work teams, the importance of team work and the importance of treating each other with respect. Wages information and occupational health and safety issues were another concern. Management and the workforce consolidated a list of briefing topics that management would present to the workforce as a whole, and that each peer communicator would then do a follow up briefing on within each of their language groups. The training day also covered issues such as listening and communication skills, as well as the important of stress management and handling one’s own emotions (and the contribution of these aspects to effective communication). The peer communicators were also trained in techniques for resolving conflict, and effectively deflecting bullying behaviour. After the day’s training, management were coached in how they could provide the peer communicators with support and demonstrate commitment to the relationship with the workforce. The key principals were around the issue of integrity, consistency and willingness to hear the workforce. Through persistent application of the principals from this project, the management team achieved a staggering reduction of 98% in claims and injuries. Although there were some unique interventions such as the creation of a peer communicator’s network, coaching of management and the workforce, the key point to learn from this case study is really about the fragility and importance of good workplace relationships. If a relationship is not based on mutual trust, then there can be no effective communication and information sharing, which are central principals in creating safe workplaces.  AWARD NIGHT PHOTOS Martha Knox Haly and David Tolson receiving their Finalists awards at the 2005 NSCA/Telstra National Safety Awards dinner for their work on the Elf Mushrooms Project Martha Knox Haly (MKA Risk) and David Tolson (Elf Mushrooms CEO) at the National Safety Awards of Excellence dinner as joint finalists at the Rydges Jamison Hotel Comic Vince Sorento keeping the night entertaining as the MC for the National Safety Council of Australia’s Awards evening. INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[6]=new Array("../members/members02.html","MKA Risk -  Papers and Reviews - Occupational Stress","MKA Risk Mitigation Paper presented on occupational stress claims in relation to three key areas of performance management, bullying in the workplace and inappropriate recruitment.","Discussion Papers PAPERS Occupational Stress Performance Management Fatigue Management Conflict Resolution Employee Assistance Programs Harassment Prevention Drugs in the Workplace Occupational Stress Paper presented at the Public Sector Human Resources Conference (Sydney - 11-Nov-2004 / Melbourne - 29-Oct-2004) Authored by Martha Knox-Haly Introduction: Today's session paper is about defining risk mitigation as it relates to the public sector, then outlining three key areas that give rise to occupational stress claims. These three areas are: performance management, bullying in the workplace and inappropriate recruitment. Risk Mitigation Risk Mitigation is about dealing with the psychosocial factors that create positive, performing and professional workplaces. For the public sector this means actively creating workplaces that are highly functional in terms of process, efficiency, stability and reliability. It is about building workplaces which have a rich network of relationships across and within different work sections. In order to achieve this, there needs to be reasonable levels of workforce stability and managed turnover of staff, as opposed to a rapid stream of unpredicted tearful resignations. Risk Mitigation is about creating positive working relationships between management and relevant unions. As everyone here is well aware, if we don't have these types of relationships, the functionality of industrial negotiations are compromised. Risk Mitigation for a bureaucracy is about creating an environment which will effectively serve the public, keep the minister adequately informed and continue to deliver quietly, smoothly and without hiccoughs. How does reducing occupational stress relate to risk mitigation in a bureaucracy? Once an employee has developed a clinical stress condition, management is really going to be on the back foot for rebuilding relationships, optimising performance and creating a harmonious workplace. There is an almost inevitable bitterness that arises in stress claimants with psychological injuries, as they often develop additional dissatisfaction with the workers compensation system and their employers. From the human resource manager's side, there might be the hours helplessly spent listening to an unhappy employee whose upsets can never be placated by the workers compensation system. The injured worker wants an apology and wants "justice". Unfortunately, workers compensation is not about justice; it is about payment, efficient claims administration, organisation of treatment and progressive return to work. Workers compensation is not there to arbitrate on morale issues, period. Hence there is a terrible collision between rational process and very real human emotional needs. From the coworkers perspective there might be anger at having to cover their colleagues' absence. Public sector recruitment systems mean that it will be months before replacements are found. Appropriate secondments may not be available or the workplace budget may not extend to skill hire. Neighbouring work sections will begin to instinctively socially withdraw from the proximity of the angry, stressed worker/claimant. In extreme cases, work processes begin to be subtly rerouted around the worker's section. Slowly, the entire section is isolated. The whole organisation is no longer working for efficiency, but avoidance of "difficult stressed employees." This is a quick pen portrait that illustrates that prevention is unarguably better than cure within a public sector bure aucracy…… Reducing Risk Factors How does one minimise occupational stress in a public sector bureaucracy? There are three general areas which are associated with occupational stress claims. These areas are: · Performance Management of Employees · Workplace Bullying · Selection Processes Performance Management There is often an equation in public sector bureaucracy of "you are performance managing me, and I'll raise you a grievance/harassment claim/ stress claim." The challenge is two fold: firstly, how to performance manage people in such a way that they will accept change and not feel bullied and secondly, how to support managers through what is often a long and arduous performance management process. How do we stop both parties from being burned out? Three essential ingredients are: a) Pre-existing positive relationships b) The listening loop c) Teaching managers to reframe and depersonalise angry responses from employees On the first point, the stronger a pre-existing relationship is with the workforce, the more capacity there is for that relationship to absorb negative feedback and convert it into positive behavioural change. The literature on conflict indicates that a relationship will remain healthy provided there is a rough ratio of four positive comments to one negative comment. When this ratio shifts to more negative comments, that is when the relationship becomes strained. This is when there is a reduced w illingness to take these comments on board and modify behaviours. For this reason, it is always advisable to space out the negative feedback as much as possible. It is also about assessing an individual's level of psychological resilience. The more resilient someone is (i.e. the less defensiveness there is), the more open a manager can be in providing negative feedback. A manager should always monitor for signs of defensiveness coming up, and as soon as they do, take a break from the feedback process. There is no point in continuing on, because as soon as the employee becomes defensive, they have physiologically lost the capacity to hear what is actually being said. The listening loop is very important, and failure to take this into account has lead to many a stress claim. In a classic public sector performance feedback session, a manager will open by feeding his/her view to the employee. It is more helpful to start with thoroughly interviewing an employee to establish his/her perception of his/her own performance. This means asking people about what they perceive to be under their control and what is their responsibility. Once you have established that an e mployee feels you have fully understood their perspective, then is the time to launch into feedback. Quite simply, you can't shift people from point A to point B, if you don't know where people believe point A is actually located. If you stint on your initial listening, expect fireworks, stress claims and angry damaged people. Teaching line managers to reframe and depersonalise angry responses from employees is crucial in the public sector performance management process. These are long drawn out processes that can run for a number of years. It is about ensuring the managers have an adequate network of social support outside of the workplace, that they have a good work-life balance and that they exercise regularly and look after their health generally. When line managers or supervisors performance manage an employee in the public sector it can be like training to run a marathon. It is therefore about teaching supervisors to do effective goal setting for their own morale and mental state. It is about giving a supervisors a philosophy of: "Pace yourself and just focus on taking each little segment one day at a time. Fully accomplishing this means that you are 10% closer to achieving your goal of successfully performance managing this employee, as opposed to focusing on the less motivating prospect of having 90% of outstanding procedural steps." It is also about constantly training managers to separate out interpretation from evidence. Line managers have to be supported in thinking about this as a professional exercise concerning their position, and that it is nothing to do with them as people. If we can keep our line managers reasonably calm about the process, there will be more chance of keeping the employees calm and successfully improving their performances, (as opposed to the process resulting in a stress claim). Workplace Bullying Workplace bullying, whether it takes the form of vertical or horizontal harassment is fuelled in a large measure by lack of consultative structures. Let us take the case of bullying between co-workers. In all of the instances with which I have dealt concerning poor workplace culture and peer bullying, it has come about through the line manager being undermined. The undermining can come about through the manager either being "set up", having poor sense of personal adequacy or the manager only developing positive relationships with the good performers in a workplace. In other words, it comes about when the manager plays "favourites". Employees observe this and do not report instances of peer bullying, lest they get on the wrong side of the manager. Peer bullying can also arise in instances where the bully has some form of psychiatric difficulty and he/she is not receiving adequate treatment or support from a qualified mental health professional. Bullying also arises in workplaces where the manager is not taking the time to check with employees' morale in the workplace. When a line manager has a large workforce, it is about notifying the union delegates that line management will be randomly approaching people to talk with them about the issues of morale. Checking on morale is not about asking workers whether they have problems with anyone. It is more an approach of regularly asking broad questions about job satisfaction; do they feel comf ortable coming to work? Do they have any suggestions about how the work environment could be improved? Broad questions reduce the chance of vexatious claims being put forward. When there has been a history of bullying occurring in a workplace, it is a matter of developing an anti-bullying policy in consultation with the workforce. The process of consultation is also an important strategy for communicating management expectations about acceptable behaviour. The next step is to then run a series of workshops where the workforce and management discuss the kind of workplace culture that they want to have in place. Part of this culture has to be based on effective models of localised conflict resolution. This means educating people about a process of: a) How to defuse their own levels of anger or emotional distress before they raise an issue. b) Encouraging people to directly raise issues with each other, and when this does not work, ask the supervisor or union delegate to intervene. c) Educating people on strategies that they can use to defuse the other party's (to the complaint) levels of anger/emotional distress. d) Tips for how the complaint is expressed and how the pacing of the message is delivered. e) Educating everyone in the workforce about the problems associated with complaining about people behind their backs. When this happens the complainant is recruiting people to their perspective, and then we have a problem of "silent ganging up" occurring. Thus the groundwork is being laid for workplace bullying to occur. What happens when the bully is actually in a management position? The same strategies really apply of creating localised conflict resolution. In this situation the line management is the problem. Therefore, the role of the human resources department becomes very crucial in communicating the position to senior executive level. Strategies of opening the work area up are critical! Steps have to be taken to adequately link the workplace to its internal customers, corporate support services (such as t he commercial services branch, industrial relations, safety units, injury management), and other adjoining work areas. These linkages become the channels for information gathering which create a comprehensive picture and set of performance accountabilities for the line manager who is being consulted . It is then a matter of communicating to the "bullying manager" that there is a large audience watching his/her actions. Any professional counselling delivered by a psychologist or senior management needs to be conveyed within this context. It is a matter of setting up weekly coaching sessions and accountabilities for that manager. Recruitment and Selection Preventing occupational stress begins with selecting the right people. This means having an understanding of bureaucratic culture, as well as looking at the job requirements. It means recruiting for a psychological match with bureaucracy. Workplace culture refers to the beliefs that people have about how they act and behave within a workplace. The classic public sector bureaucracy (in generalised terms) is a formalised and structured work environment. Good leadership is about coordination and org anisation, predictability is key, policy and formal rules are treated as law. In our very bureaucratic emphasis on selecting applicants on the basis of merit, we are only looking at technical competencies and we need to begin looking at interpersonal competencies and occupational profiling. The first step is obviously ensuring that a thorough job analysis has been done by any psychologist who is conducting recruitment testing. This creates a technical as well as legal basis for establishing relevancy of test choice. Job analysis is also essential to ensure that testing practices are not discriminatory against the candidate on the basis of gender, disability status, age and marital status. Job analysis establishes: ( a) the occupational personality profile that will assist person-culture fit and ( b) the ensureance that the individual is psychologically fit for job demands that will be placed on him/her. This is about more than ensuring that a police officer is psychologically resilient enough to cope with inevitable job trauma. It is also about ensuring that you are not recruiting people who are floridly psychotic into customer service roles where they are handling cash. This last example might sound very frivolous, but it is often very hard to detect the subtle signs of psychosis in a regular interview panel. It does not mean that you exclude people with a history of difficulties. But it does mean that if you take them on, you have to support them properly in the workplace. This is a very real example of managing diversity sensibly. There is a need to ensure that if an applicant does have a problem in this area, that they are receiving adequate treatment and support to manage the p roblem. We need to manage mental health disabilities in the same way that we strive to create access for people with physical disabilities. However I would like to argue for more that just introducing psychological testing as part of the recruitment process. There is room for inclusion of qualitative judgement on the panel's part in the formal interview process. In terms of assessing cultural match, it is possible to ask a candidate to complete a brief culture assessment tool, (which is enclosed in appendix one). The candidate can be asked to complete the assessment tool in terms of their expectations of an ideal work environment. The panel supervisor can complete the same tool in terms of how they perceive the actual work environment. It is then a matter of comparing the gaps and similarities; and using the tool results as a structured interview. Depth questioning in this fashion can help prevent recruiting the wrong person in terms of organisational cultural fit. For example, the antithesis of the bureaucratic culture is the "adhocracy". An adhocracy is the kind of culture typically found in a dot com, or any small start up business. People coming from a small business background are going to be used to a more informal environment- they are used to more casual relationships. Applicants from a small business background may not understand hierarchy. Their more casual approach can come across as disrespectfulness towards others. In small business, success is about being unique, different and fast moving. Applicants from a small business background will chafe against bureaucratic process which they mistake as unnecessary cautiousness. Such applicants have previously been rewarded in small business for new ideas; therefore they will not understand why the bureaucracy (which is about consistency) doesn't respond positively when they offer their ideas on "better ways of doing things". Hence we have a frustrated employee who feels victimised and rejected (and can end up lodging a stress claim). There are two other forms of organisational culture, and these are the "clan culture" and the "market culture". Clan culture is the type of environment where employees arrive at work to socialise, where emphasis is placed upon sensitivity to human concerns and rights. The workplace is conflict avoidant and it is all about developing employees. This is the type of environment that might be found in non-profit organisations or very old family owned firms. Applicants from this ba ckground might find the formality of a bureaucracy to be cold and unsupportive. Conversely, the bureaucracy might find such applicants to be naively open, and not having appropriate regard for confidentiality. A market culture is a competitive environment which is all about increasing market share. There is a level of ruthlessness both internally and externally. The focus is on accomplishing productivity measures. An applicant from this background might jeopardise the delicate relationship network that keeps a bureaucracy functioning smoothly. The applicant's tendency to be interpersonally ruthless might cause co-workers to shrink like fragile anemones from such a person. It does not mean that you exclude these applicants from these different organisational cultures, but it does require line management to have a discussion with the applicant to ensure that their expectations are realistic before they accept the position. After the panel has gone through the prepared questions to establish technical competency or suitability, it is useful to take in an additional stage of analysis. This is the type of analysis that has been used in a clinical context to screen for personality disorders. When psychologists are conducting clinical interviews to screen for diagnoses such as borderline personality disorder or antisocial personality disorder, they examine family relationships, peer relationships and workplace relation ships. Obviously it is not appropriate to question applicants about their personal lives or cultural background. However, you can ask people their reasons for leaving each previous position and if they keep in touch with former work colleagues? How often do they catch up with old work colleagues for lunch? What previous experience has the applicant had of working in a public sector environment? If applicants jump around from job to job, this is telling us something about the applicant's capacity to commit. It is also handy to just ask the applicant how they have dealt with workplace conflict in the past. If an applicant unhesitatingly indicates that they have not had much conflict, or indicates that they resolved it satisfactorily, then these can be positive signs of maturity. This simple information can be elicited through light social chatting after the pre-set questions. The response s to these questions should not be the sole reason for rejecting an applicant, but heed should be given to these subtle trace indicators. Such information can be most beneficial in determining the suitability for a work environment. Again it does not mean that you have to exclude candidates with an unstable work history and previous episodes of workplace conflict, but as an employer you do need to think about how you will manage these aspects if you decide to engage this applicant . Appendix One: Four Workplace Cultures and Workplace Culture Interview Questionnaire Four Different Workplace Cultures Clan culture The emphasis is on relationships and friendships People are very open about themselves It is like a family The head of the organisation is like a parent figure or benign mentor The organisation is held together by loyalty or tradition Commitment is high The organisation emphasises the long term benefit of human resources development with high cohesion Morale is important Success is about sensitivity to customers and concern for people The organisation places a premium on team work, participation and consensus Adhocracy Culture Characterised as dynamic, entrepreneurial and a creative place to work. People stick their necks out and take risks. Leaders are considered to be innovators and risk takers. Commitment to experimentation and innovation. Emphasis on being leading edge. Readiness for change and meeting new challenges is important. The organisation's long term emphasis is on growth and acquiring new resources. Success means having unique and new products or services. Being a product leader is very important. The organisation encourages individual initiatives and freedom Market Culture Results oriented Leaders are hard drivers, producers, competitors Management are tough and demanding The bond that holds everyone together is winning Key concern is competitive actions Focus on achievement of measurable economic goals and targets Success is about market share and penetration. Competitive pricing and market leadership are important. The organisational style is hard driving competitiveness. Hierarchy Culture Formalised and structured place to work Procedures govern what people do Leaders prize themselves on being good coordinators and organisers Maintaining a smooth running organisation is important Long term concerns are stability, predictability and efficiency Formal rules and policies hold the organisation together Workplace Culture Interview Questionnaire Item A. Long term goals of work area Organisation emphasises the long term benefits of human resources development with high cohesion. © Organisation's long term emphasis is on growth and acquiring new resources. (a) Organisation's long term goal is to eliminate competition and dominate the market. (m) Organisation's long term concerns are stability, predictability and efficiency. (h) Item B. What holds the organisation together? Workplace is held together by tradition or loyalty. © Workplace is held together by commitment to ideals and creative professionalism. (a) The bond that holds everyone together is winning. (m) Formal rules and policies hold the organisation together (h) Item C. What are the qualities of leaders? The head of the organisation is like a parent figure or mentor. © Leaders are considered to be innovators and risk takers. (a) Leaders are hard drivers, producers, competitors. (m) Leaders prize themselves on being good coordinators and organisers. (h) Item D. Which of the following does the organisation value the most? Staff morale. (c ) Commitment to experimentation and innovation. (a) Key concern is competitive actions. (m) Maintaining a smooth running organisation is important. (h) Item E. What does the organisation regard as being an indicator of success? Success is about concern for people. © Success means having unique and new products or services. (a) Success is about market share and penetration. (m) Success is about continuity and smooth operation of mass production. (h) Item F. How do workers make decisions about their jobs? The organisation places a premium on team work, participation and consensus. © The organisation encourages individual initiatives and freedom. (a) The market determines what decisions are made, and cash is king. (m) Decisions are made exclusively by senior management and handed down as edicts. (h) Item G. What is the organisation's style? It is like a family. © It is characterised as a dynamic, entrepreneurial and creative place to work. (a) The organisational style is hard driving competitiveness. (m) It is a formalised and structured place to work. (h) Item H. How do people behave in this environment? People are very open about themselves. © People stick their necks out and take risks. (a) People are very results oriented and work focused. (m) People are very formalised and follow policies and protocols. (h) Item I. How are people managed? Care is taken to nurture staff and shield them from negative feedback, sometimes this can verge into protecting staff from negative feedback. © Staff are managed in a largely hands off fashion, as they are regarded as being autonomous professionals. (a) Management are tough and demanding. (m) All staff are closely managed through through formal procedures and supervision. (h) Item J. How does the organisation deal with change? Change can be regarded as traumatic and emotionally distressing © Change is the reason for being of the workplace and people thrive on change. Readiness for change and meeting new challenges are important. (a) Change is regarded as essential to maintaining market dominance and market share. (m) Change is resisted, challenged and the impact of change is watered down as much as possible. (h) INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[7]=new Array("../about/about01.html","MKA Risk - Contact & newsletter Details","Are you interested in how to contact mka risk mitigation specialist from sydney. please note our details for hearing your request, fax, compliment, complaint or request to receive newsletters..","Contact Martha Knox-Haly. Specialist intervention in Risk Mitigation. Level 17 BNP Paribas Centre 60 Castlereagh Street, Sydney, NSW, 2000. Ph 9264 9954 Fax 9231 7575 marthaknox@bigpond.com Contact us MKA Risk - Specialist intervention in Risk Mitigation. We are interested in hearing from you, if you have a compliment, a complaint, a request to receive our newsletters, please send us your contact details to marthaknox@bigpond.com.  Web Design by Ellipse Design Pty Ltd Web Pages by Halyucinations Studios INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[8]=new Array("../links/links02.html","MKA Risk Mitigation, Links to Fatigue Management and Fatigue program websites","MKA Risk Mitigation references to Fatigue Management and Fatigue programs websites","Links General Interest Links Fatigue Management Links Bullying at Work Links Occupational Stress Links Drugs and Alcohol Links Performance Management Useful Links Fatigue Links This page contains links to additional information on Fatigue Management and Fatigue programs websites ABC of Psychological Medicine: Fatigue - Sharpe and Wilks 325 (7362): 480 - BMJ http://www.bmj.bmjournals.com/cgi/content/full Driver Fatigue Management Action Plan. http://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety/fatigue Commercial Vehicle Driver Fatigue/ Fatigue Management Training http://www.safetyline.wa.gov.au Wellman-Occupational Health- Fatigue Management http://www.wellman.org.au/fatigue Fatigue Outcomes Measurement http://www.jcaremanagement.com/ html/fatigue_outcomes_measurement.html INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[9]=new Array("../links/links03.html","MKA Risk Mitigation Workplace Bullying and Harassment Web page links","MKA Risk Mitigation recommends these links to Workplace Bullying and Harassment websites","Links General Interest Links Fatigue Management Links Bullying at Work Links Occupational Stress Links Drugs and Alcohol Links Performance Management Useful Links Bullying Links This page contains links to Bullying and harrassment websites Bully Online http://www.bullyonline.org Bullying at work http://www.agency.osha.eu.int/publications Factsheet - Bullying at Work http://www.workershealth.com.au Stress and psychosocial risks. bullying at work (mobbing or moral harassment) http://www.europe.osha.eu.int/ good_practice/risks/stress/bullying Workplace bullying and occupational violence http://www.workcover.voc.gov.au INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[10]=new Array("../links/links04.html","MKA Risk Mitigation Occupational Stress Web page links","MKA Risk Mitigation recommends these links to Occupational Stress related websites","Links General Interest Links Fatigue Management Links Bullying at Work Links Occupational Stress Links Drugs and Alcohol Links Performance Management Useful Links Occupational Stress Links This page contains links to Occupational Stress websites Occupational Stress - Hot Topics Arranged by Exposure http://www.infoventure.com/osh/menus/strs.html Human Resources|Occupational Stress http://www.adelaide.edu.au/hr/ohs/occstress Reducing Occupational Stress http://www.workhealth.org/prevention NIOSH/Stress at Work http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/stresswk.html Links to stress related resources http://www.imt.net/~randolfi/stresslinks.html INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[11]=new Array("../links/links05.html","MKA Risk Mitigation Drugs and Alcohol Web page links","MKA Risk Mitigation recommends the links to Drugs, Alcohol Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services websites","Links General Interest Links Fatigue Management Links Bullying at Work Links Occupational Stress Links Drugs and Alcohol Links Performance Management Useful Links Drugs and Alcohol Links This page contains links to Drugs and Alcohol websites Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Clearing House for Alcohol and Drug Administration http://www.ncadi.samhsa Drugs and Alcohol http://www.medicineau.net.au Alcohol and your health-Fact Sheet 7 http://www.health.gov.au/pubhlth/publications Resilience Education and Drug Information http://www.redi.gov.au Alcohol and other drugs - Flinders University Collection http://www.lib.flinders.edu.au/ resources/ej/sub/health_alcohol National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) http://www.ndarc.unsw.edu.au INDEX, FOLLOW")
sQ1[12]=new Array("../links/links06.html","MKA Risk Mitigation Performance Management Useful Links","MKA Risk Mitigation recommends useful Links to Performance Management and Performance Appraisal  websites","Links General Interest Links Fatigue Management Links Bullying at Work Links Occupational Stress Links Drugs and Alcohol Links Performance Management Useful Links Performance Management Useful Links This page contains links to Performance Management Useful Links websites Performance Management and Performance Appraisal http://www.work911.com/performance Organisational Performance Management http://www.mapnp.org/library/org_perf Performance Management Resources to help you develop your performance management appraisal and evaluation process http://www.Human resources.about.com/ library/blindexperfmgmt.htm Performance Management - Notes, Links and Updates http://www.hmguide.co.uk 100's of free articles about work related performance management http://www.articles911.com/ work_related/performance_management INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[13]=new Array("../general/terms.html","MKA Risk - Terms of Website Usage, Copyright and Limited Permission to Copy","MKA Risk Mitigation - Terms of Website Usage, Copyright and Limited Permission to Copy","Terms of Use Copyright and Limited Permission to Copy The materials contained on this website are protected under copyright and other laws of Australia, and under international conventions and similar laws abroad. Unless otherwise stated (and excluding the links and reviews pages), copyright and other intellectual property rights for all material published on the site, including, but not limited to, the textual material, artwork, photographs, and visual elements, is owned or controlled by Martha Knox-Haly of MKA Risk. You are permitted to print or download extracts from this material for your personal use only. Except with our prior written permission in each case: None of this material may be used for any commercial or public use. No part of the site or any material appearing on the site may be reproduced or stored in or transmitted to any other website. No material appearing on the site may be disseminated in any form, either electronic or non-electronic, nor included in any retrieval system or service. Any request for permission may be sent to Martha Knox-Haly at marthaknox@bigpond.com. INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[14]=new Array("../general/Privacy.html","MKA Risk - Official Policy on your Privacy and Personal Information","MKA Risk Mitigation privacy policy for clients personal information our code of practice provides for disclosure only with written consent except where any legal access or disclosure is required however, the client will be informed.","Privacy Privacy Policy This document complies with free Privacy Act 1998 and 2001 private sector amendment. For further information regarding this act please refer to http:\\\\www.Privacy.gov.au.  Privacy and Your Personal Information Privacy The Privacy Act 1988 and 2001 private sector amendment sets out standards of practice that place legal obligations on Privacy in the Private Health Sector. MKA Risk Mitigation are required to collect and use personal Information in order to provide psychological services. As such, we endeavour to respect the privacy of all our clients and therefore operate within common law provisions, the Freedom of Information Act 1982, the NSW Psychologists Registration Board Code of Ethical Conduct 1997, and the Privacy Act 1988. Certain restrictions to these acts apply to Claimants of Workers Compensation. In relation to Workers Compensation cases MKA Risk Mitigation comply with The Investigations Code of Practice which has been developed by Privacy NSW. The code of practice is made in accordance with Division 1 of Part 3 of the Privacy and Personal Information Protection Act 1998. The code is designed to strike a balance between the right of privacy for individuals and also to enable MKA Risk Mitigation on behalf of Work Cover, to perform investigative functions. Privacy NSW recognises that there is a clear public interest in allowing Work Cover to properly carry out its prosecution role. This role could be seriously compromised if Work Cover was forced to immediately alert a person that they were under investigation. Likewise it is not always in the public interest for Work Cover to disclose the full nature of its case prior to it initiating legal proceedings. The Code of Practice can be found at section 7.1.1 of Work Covers Management Plan available from Martha Knox and associates upon request. Similarly during investigations of Victims of Crime, information may be withheld under section 6.4 of the Victims Rights Act 1996, should the disclosure of information jeopardise the investigation.  NPP 1-Collection MKA Risk Mitigation will not collect any Information about our clients unless it is necessary for assessment, intervention or legal purposes. MKA Risk Mitigation endeavour to ensure that the information about our clients is collected in a fair, lawful and unobtrusive way. To ensure the fair collection of information about their clients, MKA Risk Mitigation will: Inform all clients of information that is to be collected about them and the purpose of collecting such information To ensure the lawful collection of information about their clients, MKA Risk Mitigation will: Obtain oral or written consent from all clients when collecting information from third parties Collect information without consent, only if there is a law requiring them to do so. Such laws include Commonwealth, State and Tertiary legislation as well as the common law. To ensure that information collected about you as a client is not collected in an obtrusive way, MKA Risk Mitigation will: Where possible collect Information directly from you as the client and not a third party. Ensure that all information is collected in a confidential manner (for example discussing personal information in our private consultation rooms, in the privacy of your own home or in a private workplace office) Obtain oral or written consent from their client if information is required from a third party about the client. Ensure that their clients are informed as soon as practical when information is collected from a third party without oral or written consent, indicating to the client what information was collected, by whom, for what purpose and how it may be accessed. NPP 2 - Use & Disclosure MKA Risk Mitigation will only use or disclose information about their clients for the purpose it was collected unless the client has consented to a secondary purpose. All clients will be made aware of, and consent to, the disclosure of information to employers and or other health care providers. including referrals to specialists and hospitals. Information about a client may be used or disclosed by MKA Risk Mitigation without consent when: The use or disclosure of such information is for a secondary purpose which is related to the primary purpose and a person would reasonably expect such use or disclosure The use or disclosure of such information is related to public Interest such as law enforcement and public or individual health and safety. The information has been subpoenaed in a court of law. The person to whom the information is being disclosed is the person legally responsible for a client who does not have the capacity to give consent (for example a child, or client who suffers from a developmental disability or dementia) and MKA Risk Mitigation are satisfied that the disclosure is necessary for appropriate care or disclosure is not contrary to the wishes of the client. Oral or written consent will be acquired prior to MKA Risk Mitigation utilising your personal health information for research or statistical purposes or for any purpose other than that for which it was collected.  Note: A person is responsible for an individual if they are a parent, a child or sibling aged at least 18 years, a spouse or de facto spouse, an immediate relative aged at least 18 years that is also a member of the individuals household, a guardian or have power of attorney that is exercisable in relation to the individual's health, have an intimate personal relationship with the individual or have been nominated by the individual in case of an emergency.  NPP 3 - Data Quality MKA Risk Mitigation endeavour to take reasonable steps to ensure that the personal information they collect uses or discloses is accurate, complete and up-to-date. NPP 4 - Data Security MKA Risk Mitigation endeavour to take reasonable steps to protect the personal information of it's clients from misuse, loss, unauthorised access, modification and disclosure by: Ensuring all paper based client records are kept in a locked filing cabinet at all times Ensuring electronic client health records are only accessible the MKA Risk Mitigation by password Ensuring all electronic client health record data stored on a back-up medium are kept in a locked cabinet Ensuring access to all client health records is on a 'need-to' only basis. Ensuring all personal client information that is no longer used or being disclosed is destroyed or permanently de-identified   PRIVACY POLICY MKA Risk Mitigation have the following policies regarding the handling practices of personal client information*: MKA Risk Mitigation hold personal Information relating to: Clients rehabilitation and treatment Clients liability and damn determination Clients personal history and workplace history MKA Risk Mitigation uses client personal information for: The facilitation of generalist counselling and treatment services Workers compensation claims including: The determination of liability Rehabilitation and treatment Risk management recommendations When Personal information is no longer being used by MKA Risk Mitigation this information: Is stored in a locked filing cabinet off-site for a period of seven years Is permanently destroyed via a shredding machine Under most circumstances clients may access the personal information MKA Risk Mitigation have kept on their file. MKA Risk Mitigation may discuss the contents with them and/ or give them a copy. To access this information clients must: Lodge a request in writing to Martha Knox. Workers compensation clients should apply In writing to their insurance company or relevant law firm, All requests will be responded to within "30" days and an appointment will be made if necessary for clarification purposes. PRIVACY POLICY - Special Notes MKA Risk Mitigation are bound by the National Privacy Principles, however MKA Risk Mitigation are also bound by: - NSW Psychologist Registration Board Code of Ethical Conduct Exemptions to this Privacy Policy do apply: Certain restrictions to this policy may apply to Claimants of Workers Compensation. In relation to Workers Compensation cases MKA Risk Mitigation comply with The Investigations Code of Practice which has been developed by Privacy NSW. The code of practice is made in accordance with Division 1 of Part 3 of the Privacy and Personal Information Protection Act 1998. The code is designed to strike a balance between the right of privacy for individuals and also to enable MKA Risk Mitigation o n behalf of Work Cover, to perform investigative functions. Privacy NSW recognises that there is a dear public interest in allowing Work Cover to properly carry out its prosecution role. This role could be seriously compromised if Work Cover was forced to immediately alert a person that they were under investigation. Likewise it is not always in the public interest for Work Cover to disclose the full nature of its case prior to it Initiating legal proceedings. The Code of Practice can be found at section 7.1.1 of Work Covers Management Plan available from Martha Knox and associates upon request. Similarly during investigations of Victims of Crime, information may be withheld under section 6.4 of the Victims Rights Act 1996, should the disclosure of information jeopardise the investigation. What Do You Do If You Have A Concern About The Management of Your Personal information If you have a concern about the management of your personal information, please inform Martha Knox. Upon request you can obtain a copy of the National Privacy Principles, which describe your rights and how your information should be handled. Ultimately, if you wish to lodge a formal complaint about the use of, or access to, your personal information, you may do so with the Office of the Federal Privacy Commissioner on 1300 363 992, or GPO Box 5218, Sydney, NSW 1042. MKA Risk Mitigation Contact Details Telephone: (02) 9264 9954 Facsimile: (02) 9231 7575 *Certain exceptions do apply to these Policies, for details of such exceptions please see the full documentation regarding privacy and your personal information.  NPP 6 - Access & Correction MKA Risk Mitigation provide all their clients access to their own personal information held by MKA Risk Mitigation upon request Such access is available upon appointment only, during opening hours unless prior arrangements are made with the staff of MKA Risk Mitigation. Access will be provided within 30 days of a request. MKA Risk Mitigation in compliance with the Privacy act 1988 do not charge a consultation fee against an individual accessing their personal information. However, should consultation be required for the sole purpose of discussing the clients personal information standard consultation fees apply. Additionally, charges may apply for any associated costs related with the provision of copies of personal information if required. Personal information that is deemed by the client to be inaccurate or out-of-date will be amended by attachment only. Original documentation will not be amended or erased upon request. However, MKA Risk Mitigation provide their clients with the right to add (without modifying original documentation) their own statements to their personal health record If they so chose. A consultation fee will be levied by MKA Risk Mitigation should further assessment be required to update incomplete or out-of date information about a client. MKA Risk Mitigation may deny access the a clients own personal information if providing such access would pose a serious and imminent threat to the life or health of any Individual or to the privacy of any other Individual or if the request is frivolous or vexatious or involves information that relates to existing or anticipated legal proceedings. NPP 8 - Anonymity MKA Risk Mitigation provide the opportunity for clients to act anonymously whenever it Is lawful and practicable to do so. - Anonymity will not be held when a clients health/behaviour poses serious risk to themselves or others or their health / behaviour Is required to be notified by law. providing an anonymous service would jeopardise the quality and timeliness of the health care provided Identification Is required to provide a health service (eg. workers compensation) Identification is required for medico-legal purposes  NPP 9 - Transborder Data Flows In such cases that personal information must be transferred to foreign country, MKA Risk Mitigation will ensure that the transfer of such information is conducted In a secure, confidential and timely manner. NPP 10 - Sensitive Information Sensitive information is; in formation or an opinion about an individual's racial or ethnic origin, political opinions or affiliations; religious beliefs or affiliations or philosophical beliefs, memberships of trade associations or unions, sexual preferences or practices or criminal record, that is also personal information or health information. MKA Risk Mitigation will endeavour to ensure that sensitive information about a client will not be collected unless the client has consented, It is required by law, or in other special specified circumstances, for example, relating to health services provision and individual or public health or safety, or where it is Impractical to seek consent In such cases, information will be permanently de-identified before it is disclosed. In those circumstances whereby sensitive information must be collected, such collection will be completed. in accordance with professional rules of confidentiality. If personal information is not collected for reasons of providing a health service to a client but for reasons of public health or safety (eg.: research) then MKA Risk Mitigation will take steps to permanently de-identify the information before it Is disclosed.  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[15]=new Array("../members/members03.html","MKA Risk -  Papers and Reviews - Performance Management and Performance Appraisal","MKA Risk Paper on Performance Management and Performance Appraisal - Authored by Kelly Hooper","Discussion Papers PAPERS Occupational Stress Performance Management Fatigue Management Conflict Resolution Employee Assistance Programs Harassment Prevention Drugs in the Workplace This Section contains papers on Performance Management and Performance Appraisal. Performance Management Written 27th Feb 2003 Authored by Kelly Hooper Performance is a concept that means different things to different people. As such, it tends to be measured in a number of different ways. The underlying issue for organisations is to turn performance assessment into a management and communication tool, which in turn becomes a performance management system. Banks and May (1999) suggest that such a system must have at least three elements to be effective. These include: (i) a well-articulated set of performance dimensions indicating an employee's valu e to the organisation; (ii) a behaviourally anchored continuum of effectiveness for each dimension to verify degrees of contribution and (iii) a structured process for communicating the feedback on performance. If performance management, including appraisal, is included as part of a managers' everyday duties and responsibilities, it is more likely that they will engage in it on a continuous basis, thereby providing feedback and coaching to employees as needed. Over the years the focus has been on improving the accuracy of assessing performance as well as designing effective performance development tools. Some of the ways in which performance management effectiveness can be enhanced include designing the 'right' format and framing this within the context of setting goals (Banks & May, 1999). In other words, the format should be user-friendly, ensure it captures the appropriate job content and minimizes both judgmental and perceptual errors. It shoul d also allow performance to be a matter of setting an employee's annual goals then measuring the degree of attainment. In addition, it would be ideal for assessment to be received from all levels of the organisation (superiors, subordinates and peers) as well as from its customers. Performance appraisals can have a direct bearing on an individual's motivation and can lead to both increased and decreased performance. Therefore it is important to design an effective system that aligns with organisation and employee needs. Some of the issues to consider when designing the appraisal process include: - what the results will be used for - how will the information for the appraisal be gathered - rater training - rater motivation - self and peer appraisal - feedback of information to employees - assessing the system JOB ANALYSIS A thorough job analysis is an essential first step in developing a legally valid performance management system as it derives the performance dimensions, defines tasks and activities in behavioural terms and defines important and critical aspects of the job. This systematic process involves a better understanding of the context, content and requirements of an existing job and is used when a new job is being created, changed or when there is uncertainty that the results of an old job analysis are still accurate. A good job analysis helps ensure that the focus of the performance appraisal is actually upon the work that is being performed, rather than something irrelevant like an employees' personality or political beliefs. How to conduct a job analysis Algera and Greuter (1998) list four approaches that can be adopted in conducting a job analysis. All methods of job analysis can be classified as belonging to one of the four approaches described by Algera and Grueter. These approaches are: 1. Behaviour description, where the focus is upon the behaviours displayed by task performers. 2. Behaviour requirements. This approach is aimed at the behaviour the task performer should display to perform a task successfully. The emphasis is particularly placed on the intervening processes between stimulus and response. 3. Ability requirements where tasks are analysed in terms of human abilities and personality traits required for successful task performance. 4. Task characteristics, where the focus is upon the objective characteristics of the task. This material is considered separately from the behaviour which should be displayed (behaviour description) or the required human abilities (ability requirements). The emphasis in this approach is placed on the actual objective characteristics of the tasks. This approach is preferred when job or work redesign is being considered with a view to increasing job satisfaction and motivation. It is possible and, in fact, advisable to utilise more than one of these approaches when conducting job analyses to ensure a comprehensive coverage of the job content domain. Information sources can include present job incumbents, training manuals, role descriptions and supervisory accounts. Saville and Holdsworth (1998) advise structuring the survey sample for jobholders from different ethnic backgrounds, age classifications and gender mix to ensure an adequate representation of jobholder charac teristics. DUE PROCESS An important legal consideration in performance management is the concept of due process. That is, those criteria must cover only those aspects of performance, which are within the employee's control. The primary objectives for due process is the need for an adequate notice period for when one's performance is to be managed, fair hearing and judgement based on evidence (Folger, Konovsky & Cropanzano, 1998). Therefore, employees should have input into the formulation of objectives and standards or at least opportunities to question the content of standards, the process whereby these were established, and the manner in which these standards will be implemented. In other words, it is necessary to conduct a job analysis using subject matter experts, and to conduct formal consultation with employees about the ways in which goals are going to be set. Performance criteria must reflect relevant specific clearly defined and observable dimensions of the job performance. The objectives of due process are met by establishing employee input, two-way communication, the right to challenge, rater familiarity with the employee's work and an application of consistent standards. Most organisations use the performance appraisal system to assess an employees strengths and weaknesses, on the basis of which decisions are made about rewards, promotion and development. The practical importance of these decisions places a premium importance on the quality of appraisal information. However, rater distortions of employee appraisals and employee attempts to exaggerate apparent performance are facts of organisational life that can never be completely eliminated. These distortions m ay be intentional or unintentional (Kozlowski, Chao & Morrison,1998). Unintentional biases are generally regarded as a function of the rater's privately held evaluations influencing ones perception and judgment of the ratee. Intentional bias is a deliberate rating distortion and tends to be more prevalent. Contextual factors that may promote conscious manipulation of appraisals by raters include administrative policies, purpose and degree of accountability. Additional influences also include characteris tics of the organisation such as its culture, climate, socialisation processes and reward structure (Kozlowski et al, 1998) Most managers and employees are aware of the types of problems that arise in performance appraisal. 'Easy' and 'tough' managers and managers who play favourites create situations which result in unfair ad inaccurate ratings. Common examples of rater errors / perceptual biases include: Halo effect The most common rating effect is halo and occurs when a rater assigns the same rating to all aspects of an employee's performance, regardless of the actual level, because of an overall favourable or unfavourable impression of the employee. Halo can occur at any point along the scale, although the most frequent tendency is for people to give uniformly positive ratings. In many cases halo represents an error in that the rater incorrectly generalizes from performance on one dimension to other dimensi ons rather than carefully considering each separate aspect of performance. Central tendency This effect is caused by a manager giving everyone an average or acceptable rating, regardless of actual performance. These errors arise from 'playing safe', having few opportunities to observe the employee's performance and being unwilling to justify high or low ratings to the employee or the organisation Leniency / strictness bias Occurs when managers rate their employees either consistently high or low. Severity (strictness) occurs when a rater gives mainly negative evaluations. Leniency occurs when raters assign all ratees favourably. The most serious problem with these types of effects is that they do not allow a differentiation among employees Order effect The order in which information appears can influence appraisals. Primacy effect - the first information about a rate influences the final evaluation more than information appearing later. Recency effect - when a manager overemphasizes the employee's most recent behaviour. Research suggests that primacy effects are more likely when one overall evaluation is made after observing information on the rate, whereas recency effects are more likely when the rater evaluates the ratee on each item of inform ation as it occurs Impression management In addition to the rater's motivation to distort performance ratings, ratees have the potential to indirectly exert influence as well. This is done through impression management, or selectively behaving so as to enhance their image in the raters eyes. This is likely to affect the extent to which the supervisor liked the subordinate and perceived similarities with the subordinate which in turn directly influences their ratings of their subordinate's performance. Characteristics of the performance evaluation system that minimise political and impression management influences tap all phases of evaluations. Kozlowski, Chao & Morrison (1998) suggest the following recommendations to manage politics and impression management in performance appraisals. In the fast-paced competitive world in which most global businesses run today, ongoing performance management is a valuable tool for staying on course or changing direction, as the marketplace demands. It should be remembered that if performance appraisal is to remain an effective management tool, the system must be consistently monitored to ensure that its results are fair, accurate and related to performance. If performance management and appraisal is interwoven into the fabric of managers' eve ryday duties and responsibilities, it is more likely that managers will engage in it on a continuous basis, thereby providing feedback and coaching to employees as needed. Disclaimer: The information provided on this page does not constitute treatment and in no way replaces direct advice from qualified professionals providing tailored solutions to particular workplaces and individuals. References Banks, C.G. & May, K.E. (1999) Performance Management: The real glue in organisations. In Kraut, A.I. & Korman, A.K. (Eds). Evolving Practices in Human Resource Management. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kozlowski, S.W.J., Chao, G.T. & Morrison, R.F. (1998). Games raters play: Politics, strategies and impression management in performance appraisal. In Smither, W. (Ed). Performance Appraisal: State of the Art in Practice. Jossey-Bass. Algera and Greuter (1998) - RSA Performance Management seminar Saville and Holdsworth (1998) - RSA Performance Management seminar Folger, Konovsky & Cropanzano (1998) - RSA Performance Management seminar Performance Appraisal: A Literature Review This paper was prepared for the Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Teaching, Sydney University September 1999 Authored by Martha Knox-Haly Introduction Performance appraisal is an increasingly significant aspect of human resources practices in Australian Workplaces. It is important that the development of performance appraisal systems occur in a systematic, methodologically rigorous and informed manner. The following paper provides a detailed outline of the steps associated with the development of appropriate performance appraisal system. The literature review is not exhaustive of all the topics referred to in this paper. However there has been an effort to be as comprehensive and practical as possible in the compilation of this material. This paper describes the processes involved with conducting a job analysis and alludes to some of the more popular job analysis methodologies. Consideration is given to the reasons for conducting a comprehensive job analysis. These reasons include establishing the relevance of a performance appraisal system to the job at hand, as well as ensuring that the performance appraisal is representative of workforce and workplace characteristics. This section describes methodologies such as the Critical I ncidents Technique, The Repertory Grid Method, Strategic Job Analysis Interviews, The Position Analysis Questionnaire, the Work Profiling System and Assessment Centres. The second section refers to the development of performance appraisal indicators. It touches upon the level of abstraction that can be associated with performance indicators. This area incorporates debate over whether personality or task behaviour is the preferred approach in the development of performance indicators. It reflects upon the legitimacy of including organisational citizenship behaviours as part of a performance appraisal process. The trend within performance appraisal literature has been to favour performance appraisal systems, which are based exclusively on task behaviours. However there has been a recent push for greater acceptance of personality measures as performance appraisal tools. Reference is made to the role of distinction between task behaviour and personality in the application of assessment centre methodologies. The third section refers to the types of supports that are required in creating a fully-fledged performance appraisal system. This section includes diary keeping, training and the process of delivering feedback. A key consideration in this section is whether the system should include multiple rating sources, and who should conduct performance appraisal ratings. The available evidence supports the use of multiple raters, and in particular points to the utility of incorporating peer ratings to incr ease the validity of the performance appraisal process. The need for training that addresses rater bias and due process is also raised in this section. The conclusion is a summary of the key attributes of a well-developed performance appraisal system and describes the implications of these attributes for Australian Workplaces. This section explores the ramifications of personality based performance appraisal measures and multi-rater systems for Australian workforces. Section I: Job Analysis Why have a job analysis? A thorough job analysis is an essential first step in developing a valid performance appraisal system. This type of analysis ensures that the performance appraisal indicators reflect the realities of job content and how work is performed within that job. Saville and Holdsworth (1998) have emphasised the importance of job analysis being structured, analytical and documented so it will satisfy workplace legisaltive requirements. Algera and Greuter (1998) list four approaches that can be adopted in conducting a job analysis. All methods of job analysis can be classified as belonging to one of the four approaches described by Algera and Grueter. These approaches are: 1. Behaviour description, where the focus is upon the behaviours displayed by task performers. 2. Behaviour requirements. This approach is aimed at the behaviour the task performer should display to perform a task successfully. The emphasis is particularly placed on the intervening processes between stimulus and response. 3. Ability requirements where tasks are analysed in terms of human abilities and personality traits required for successful task performance. 4. Task characteristics, where the focus is upon the objective characteristics of the task. This material is considered separately from the behaviour which should be displayed (behaviour description) or the required human abilities (ability requirements). The emphasis in this approach is placed on the actual objective characteristics of the tasks. This approach is preferred when job or work redesign is being considered with a view to increasing job satisfaction and motivation. It is possible to utilise more than one of the above approaches in conducting a job analysis to ensure comprehensive coverage of the job content domain. Saville and Holdsworth (1998) stress the importance of using more than one source of information in conducting a job analysis. Information sources can include present job incumbents, training manuals, role descriptions and supervisory accounts. Saville and Holdsworth also advise structuring the survey sample for representativeness of job holder c haracteristics. This means surveying job holders from different ethnic backgrounds, age classifications and having an appropriate gender mix in the survey. In conducting a job analysis, it is necessary to consider whether the analyst should focus on performance results or work behaviour activities. Algera and Greuter (1998) note that in many cases choice is simplified by the fact that there are no directly measurable indicators of performance outcome, (i.e. an operators job may consist of service functions, control functions and panel watching). Practitioners conducting a job analysis can ask What is done on the job, (the objective question), what s hould be done on the job (the prescriptive question), and what will be done on the job (the predictive question), (Cronback, 1998)? The process of job analysis may be conducted through interviews, structured questionnaires, identification of critical incidents or through application of the repertory grid method. Critical Incidents Technique According to SHL, C.J. Flanagan first developed this approach for analysing the role of an air-force pilot. Job incumbents are interviewed to identify examples of critical job functions which are either performed very well or very poorly. The job data is generated with the assistance of a trained interviewer. After the incidents have been collected (often 200 to 300 per job) and grouped into categories of 10 to 20 incidents. Job incumbents, supervisors and others are consulted each time to assess and correct intermediate results. The resulting categories called behavioural dimensions are used as the framework for identifying human characteristics and behavioural requirements associated with the job. It is necessary to document the complete role set for the job in question by interviewing the various categories of people involved. This means gathering information from supervisors, job incumbents, support staff, suppliers, planners and senior management. This approach makes it possible to compose an extensive list with specific behaviour requirements which can be used in the selection of candidates. The benefit of this approach is that it explores actual events, which have occurred, on the job in the past. It also provides a rich source of material for assessment centres and situational interviews. Repertory Grid The American Psychologist George Kelly developed the repertory grid technique in the 1950s. Repertory grid interviews were originally used to determine how people perceived and classified things that occurred in the environment around them. This technique has been applied to job analysis. It is most commonly used with supervisors who are asked to compare individuals who work for them with a view to identifying the skills associated with successful job performance. The supervisor is asked to generate job constructs by picking three job holders, and identifying how two are different from the third in terms of the way in which they perform their jobs. The supervisor is asked to consider examples of successful and not so successful job performance which has been demonstrated by their subordinates. This process is repeated until a number of job constructs associated with job effectiveness have been built up. This technique has the advantage of being able to be statistically analysed when large numbers of grids have been generated. Strategic Job Analysis Interviews A job analysis can also be conducted through strategic job analysis interviews, (Bobrow and Leonards, 1997). This method can be used when the job does not yet actually exist or when the number of subject matter experts is small enough such that a survey would not be warranted. These types of interviews focus on not only what the new job knowledge, skills and abilities would be, but also how the new job would differ from the current job. Structured Questionnaires Computer scored questionnaires have been developed for job analysis procedures. McCormick's Position Analysis Questionnaire, the Job Analysis Questionnaire and Work Profiling System are examples of such questionnaires. Questionnaires are usually completed by job holders, but can be completed by line management or staff involved in job design. The Position Analysis Questionnaire gathers descriptive and attribute based information about a job. The descriptive aspect of the Position Analysis Questionnaire consists of 189 items. Each item related to an independent work activity or job element. The questionnaire is divided into six sections, which are: 1) Information input: items relating to the kind of information one has to process or handle in a job. E.g. written material. 2) Mental processes: items on the required mental processes. Example taking decisions, solving problems, degree of planning. 3) Work output: items that have to do with the execution of work, and more particularly use of machines and tools. Example: Drawing tools, measuring instruments. 4) Relations with other persons: items about contacts that are necessary to do that work. Example: contacts with the public. 5) Job context: items on the work environment and work situation. Example: outside work, high temperatures. 6) Other job characteristics: category for miscellaneous items about shift work, clothing, responsibilities for materials. Information generated by the descriptive aspect of the questionnaires is called job data. Attribute requirements (attribute data) has also been developed for each job element. Judges or subject matter experts are asked to consider the relevance of sixty-eight attributes. Judges use a six-point scale from 0 to 5 to assess the level of importance of each attribute to successful job performance. The profile of required human characteristics (attribute profile) was determined for each job element, by calculating the median for each of the 68 characteristics. Saville and Holdsworth developed the Work Profiling System (WPS) in 1989. The Work Profiling System - this has three different questionnaires for the following job groups: management and staff, administrative and service personnel, skilled and technical workers. The full WPS contains more than 800 items. Human attribute profiles have been constructed for the activity described in each item. In the design of the WPS, Human Attribute Profiles (HAPs) have been constructed for the activity described in each item. Human Attribute Profiles are a weighted linear composite of important human characteristics, which have been set up for each item. The computer output consists of a short report of the most important tasks, the job context and the profile of required characteristics. The Job Analysis Questionnaire assesses 20 abilities and nineteen personal traits. Rating scales have been developed for each of these characteristics with three to six different examples of each task. The benefit of using such questionnaires is that they add more scientific rigour to the job analysis process and allow combination of the views of different raters. A structured approach also enables comparability of different jobs. The disadvantage is that such questionnaires are expensive, time consuming and do not utilise the language or terminology of a given workplace. Assessment Centres The literature on assessment centres generally focuses more on their usage as a performance appraisal process. However Lowry (1997) has written about assessment centres as a job analysis process. According to Lowry (1997), the task specific assessment centre is concerned primarily with evaluating the subjects performance in tasks (work samples) related to the job. Therefore the desired outcome from such a job analysis should be the tasks performed on the job, rank ordered based on importance, fre quency, and need to perform on entry to the position. The final product is called a task analysis. One approach to doing the task analysis is to develop a questionnaire, which lists the tasks derived from the job description and interviews with subject matter experts. Incumbent captains and their supervisors determine the relative rank of the task responding to three questions concerning each task a) the relative contribution of this task to effective operations b) time spent on this task relative to other listed tasks c) the importance of being able to do this task correctly on entry to the j ob. Selecting the most critical tasks to be included in the exercises concludes the process. This approach differs from a job analysis for a dimension specific centre in that there is no need to attempt to identify required knowledge, skills or abilities. Section II: Performance Indicators Formulating Performance Indicators Once the raw material has been created from the job analysis, the next task is development of performance indicators. This touches upon the level of abstraction that is required in writing descriptors. Algera and Greuter (1998) comment that there are three levels of abstraction, and these levels are incidental, habitual or abstract. An example of an incidental descriptor might be that an employee "is always on time", a habitual behaviour might be "keeps agreements", whereas th e abstract descriptor would be "attention to duty". Algera and Greuter (1998) take the view that the first two levels of description are to be preferred as they are closer to observable behaviour and do not lend themselves to personality theory. The choice between habitual or incidental behaviour descriptors rests on whether generalisability across job types is required, and whether there is sufficient specificity. Lack of definitional specificity results in insufficient agreement between raters, and between the appraiser and the appraised. This i n turn creates problems for the review component of the performance appraisal system, which can become bogged down in semantic arguments between appraiser and appraisee. Algera and Greuter (1998) favour the habitual behaviour descriptors as a good compromise between observable (specific) and abstract (generalisable). If generalisation is not required across job categories, then incidental behaviours are to be preferred. Clarity of standards is alomost important in promoting inter-rater reliability. Schrader and Steiner (1996) found that providing an explicit comparison standard (internal, absolute, relative or multiple) produced significantly greater inter-rater agreement correlations than when no comparison was provided (the ambiguous condition). It was also found that ratings produced in the ambiguous condition (no standards) were lower than those using more specific comparisons were. These researchers also fo und that there were no differences between self and supervisory ratings of performance in this study. The nature of standards is quite variable and depends on the requirements of the performance appraisal context. An absolute standard identifies a specific, objective benchmark for evaluation, such as typing 60 words per minute. A relative standard requests that the evaluation be based on a comparison with other members of the workgroup. An internal standard entails a rating relative to the ratee's past performance and skill level. Finally a multiple standard requests ratings on consideration of a bsolute, relative and internal standards. Personality or Behaviour? There is a division within the psychological literature on performance appraisal regarding the utility of personality measures. According to Hogan and Shelton (1998) there is now some consensus in industrial/organisational psychology that well constructed personality measures can predict occupational performance. Conversely Algera and Greuter (1998) comment that there is a distinct disadvantage to this approach in that personality theories provide few clues as to the concrete behaviour which will be necessary to achieve an improvement in performance. For this reason there has been a favouring of systems, which emphasise concrete information, which refers directly to the job behaviour in question. Algera and Greuter (1998) argue that only where it concerns an estimate of someone's potential for a series of jobs in the (distant) future which may alter as to their exact content, is appraisal for more general capacities and personality traits inescapable. These authors argue that for all other cases it is advisable to link appraisal to concrete behaviour requirements that stem from the job in question. There is also evidence that personality based measures of performance can be influenced by manipulative impression management exercised by subordinates, (Day et al, 1996). Drenth (1998) notes that the content domain of most performance appraisal instruments developed in the last three decades falls within the category of behaviour description For managerial jobs, such an approach is often operationalised by means of an assessment centre. The centre is based on a series of simulations and exercises which reflect tasks that are considered essential to the job. Other performance appraisal systems rely on behavioural observation scales, (BOS). For example, Ridderbos (1 992) developed a series of BOS scales for operators in the petrochemical industry. Originally these scales were developed as a criterion measure to validate a workshop sample type of a predictor instrument, but they were also found to be excellent as an appraisal instrument for regular personnel evaluation. The acceptance of personality measures as an appropriate means of appraising performance depends on how the job domain is conceptualised. According to Hattrup, O'Connell and Wingate (1998) there is a theoretical consensus that the job performance domain is inherently multi-dimensional, although there is currently no clear agreement about which dimensions should be used to characterise performance for most jobs. Borman and Motowidlo (1997) drew a distinction between task and contextual performance , where the former is defined by specific job requirements and the latter is defined in terms of actions that enhance team or organisational effectiveness. Contextual performance refers to organisational citizenship behaviour and prosocial behaviour. These behaviours include persisting, volunteering, helping and co-operating, following rules and procedures and supporting organisational objectives. Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) supported the validity of distinguishing between task based and contextually based performance. Their research demonstrated that task performance involved executing, maintaining or supporting the technical processes of the organisation. Contextual performance did not support the technical core directly, rather contextual performance created and maintained the psychological, social and organisational environment in which task performance occurred. When employees en gaged in task performance they produced goods and services. When employees engaged in contextual performance, employees use their skills and energy to build the social and organisational structure that maintained the technical core. Campbell et al (1996) listed eight primary dimensions of performance, which were presumed to account for the latent structure of performance in all jobs. These dimensions were: job specific task proficiency, non-job specific task proficiency, written and oral communication, demo nstrating effort, maintaining personal discipline, facilitating team and peer performance, supervision/leadership and management administration. Borman and Motowidlo (1997) hypothesised that the antecedents of contextual performance are most likely to involve personality variables. They cite some indirect evidence to support this relation; however only one direct test of this hypothesis is available. Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) showed that six personality scales correlated more highly with ratings of contextual performance than with task performance. Although they answered their research question, it is still not clear what personali ty dimensions are most relevant for contextual performance and why. The theoretical utility of personality measures is dependent on the organisational culture. To the extent that contextual performance is discretionary, organisational practices and procedures may offer rewards encouraging incumbents to engage in discretionary behaviours. When work conditions reward contextual performance, they introduce the possibility that individual differences might affect contextual performance through the effects of the perceived value of rewards. Hogan and Hogan explain the relationship between personality and contextual performance by reference to the dual motives of cooperation - "getting along", and status - "getting ahead". Hogan and Hogan (1998) speculate that where there are no opportunities for advancement, employees will perform contextual acts because they are conscientious. Where there are opportunities for advancement, employees engage in contextual acts because they are ambitious. The research in contextual performance is hampered by definitional difficulties. Less is known about contextual performance as researchers have failed to agree on terms, sometimes substituting examples for definitions. Overlapping terms in the literature include extra-role behaviour, organisational citizenship behaviour, prosocial behaviour, principled organisational dissent, employee reliability and contextual performance. There is also a tendency to couch contextual performance in behaviouristi c terminology. In Borman and Motowidlo's (1998) view, observable behaviour represents only one perspective on contextual performance - it is the other or observer's performance. Although important for appraising contextual performance, this behaviourist view has little to offer as an explanation for individual differences in performance. How personality is measured Personality measures of performance have drawn upon either the Five Factor Model or Trait theory such as that utilised by Hogan and Hogan (1998). The dimensions of the Five-Factor Model are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience. The evidence for the Five-Factor Model points to it having mixed utility in predicting performance. Mount et al (1998) found that there was substantial variability in the validity coefficients across jobs - within p ersonality predictors and across predictors within job categories for these factors. Mount et al (1998) found that emotional stability was an important predictor of team performance. Mount et al (1998) looked at the degree to which the five-factor model of personality was related to jobs in which interpersonal reactions are reported. Results supported the hypothesis that conscientiousness, agreeableness and emotional stability are positively related to performance in jobs involving interpersonal interactions. Emotional stability and agreeableness are strongly related to performance in jobs involving team work. Hogan and Shelton (1998) were also concerned with an appropriate t axonomy of personality variables that were needed to study job performance, and how to align personality features with performance criteria. Hogan and Hogan presented data that five general factors were too broad to capture all the facets of job evaluation. Tett, Jackson and Rothstein (1991) demonstrated using a meta-analysis that the validities for personality measures increase when measures are chosen on the basis of job analysis, thereby supporting Day and Silverman's (1996) research. Borman and Motowidlo (1993) predicted those personality variables such as conscientiousness and extraversion correlated with performance amongst sales personnel. Borman and Motowidlo (1993) found that absenteeism was significantly predicted by conscientiousness, but conscientiousness did not have any relationship with general cognitive ability. Conscientiousness also correlated with citizenship behaviour. Those who perceive their job responsibilities more broadly are more apt to exhibit citizensh ip behaviour at work, suggesting that prosocial behaviours at work may be motivationally and perceptually determined. The Hogan Personality Inventory is another instrument, which has featured strongly in the literature on personality measures of performance. Hogan and Shelton (1998) conceptualised individual differences in performance as an outcome of differences in an employee's interests in "getting along" as opposed to "getting ahead". Borman and Motowidlo (1997) describe the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI) as a 206-item assessment of normal personality. The HPI is based on socioanalaytic theory, and contains seven scales that include measures of the big five personality dimensions. The test reliability coefficients, both in terms of scale internal consistency (average coefficient alpha = .80) and test retest reliability coefficients (average coefficient = .71) are within acceptable range. The HPI is used primarily within per sonnel selection and its validity defined in terms of non-test correlates is well established. They measured employees in three different industries to minimise the possibility of industry effects. They focused on marketing analysts, financial bankers and hospital administrators. They found that the characteristics of an organisation and a job could moderate the relationship between personality and contextual performance. Conscientiousness predicted contextual performance, but in the second study where promotions were more possible, ambition/urgency predicted contextual performance. Specif ic personality constructs that do appear to predict contextual performance appear to depend on the job and whether rewards are offered for contextual performance. These studies also point to the role of understanding job context behaviour. Borman and Motowidlo (1998) found that ambitious individuals were unlikely to volunteer or otherwise exhibit contextual performance. It has been found that three factors are salient as to whether people demonstrate organisational citizenship: organisational commitment, prosocial values and impression management. Hogan, Rybicki, Motowidlo and Borman (1998) had employees complete the Hogan Personality Inventory as applicants and be subsequently rated by their supervisors for contextual performance. Again results indicated that conscientiousness was significantly related to ratings of work dedication and interpersonal facilitation, which are measures of contextual performance. Personality as a moderating variable in performance appraisal The research on the impact of supervisor's perceptions of personality indicates that it does have an impact on the manner in which performance is appraised. There just seems to be a question mark over how whether perceptions of personality influence performance appraisal directly or indirectly. Wayne and Liden (1995) found that subordinate's supervisor focused impression management behavior was only weakly correlated with supervisor's ratings of employee performance. However these authors found t hat a subordinate's impression management behaviour influences the supervisor's liking of the subordinate and the supervisor's perceived similarity to the subordinate, and these in turn affect the supervisor's performance appraisal ratings. Warech, Smither, Reilly, Millsap and Reilly (1998) examined the impact of various personality traits on performance appraisal ratings. These authors found that supervisors tended to be more critical of subordinates less often than they were of subordinates who were low in impression management. Impression management in this context refers to ingratiation, self-promotion or behaviours, which are designed to manipulate or control a supervisors impression of the subordinate. The tendency to engage i n manipulative impression management behaviours has been established as having a strong link with self monitoring. The role of personality traits in influencing performance appraisal also depends upon the way in which performance is conceptualised. It depends on whether job performance is conceived in exclusively task-based terms, or whether performance is described in contextual terms. For example, Warech et al (1998) found that self-monitoring ability was positively related to assessors and supervisors ratings of interpersonal effectiveness, but was unrelated to ratings of technical business competence. Thi s pattern is clearly consistent with the interpretation that self-monitoring ability is positively associated with job related interpersonal effectiveness. These authors also found that target managers who were high in self-monitoring (or motivated to control the way that others view them) were rated more negatively with regard to business competence by their peers than target managers who were low in self motivation. This finding has particular meaning for performance appraisal systems that are exclusively reliant on supervisor ratings and lack sufficient structure. One possible implication being those performance appraisal systems with these characteristics are much more vulnerable to manipulation by subordinates who are high in impression management. It is conceivable that the ratings, which are based on personality rather than behaviour, are also more vulnerable to such manipulations. For example, Day et al (1996) reported that the correlation between self-monitoring and job performance was higher for sub jective measures of job performance. Assessment Centres A similar distinction between personality or task behaviour focused intruments can also be applied to Assessment Centre methodology. Assessment Centres are commonly used performance appraisal instruments. Assessment Centres generally involve the assessment process being conducted as a separate exercise from an employee's daily performance behaviour. Lowry (1997) classifies assessment centres as either being task specific or dimension specific. Dimension specific assessment centres are essentially only forums that give subjects the opportunity to display requisite traits and constructs. The key word that best describes the exercises in a task specific assessment centre is work sample. In other words the exercise must be directly related to the job. The assessors in task specific centres are not attempting to determine how much leadership or j udgement etc a subject has. They are attempting to measure how well the subject handles a specific job-related situation. The basic objective of the task specific assessment centre is to obtain a score from each assessor that reflects his or her best individual judgement of how well the subject performed a work sample. In a dimension-specific centre where the assessors make judgements about how much of a trait or given construct a subject has. There are no differences between the assessor criteria for dimension specific or task specific centres. Role players are an important part of the task specific assessment centre process. They are often used to stimulate employees with personal or work related problems, with members of the work team, or as superior officers. The exercise design should include a carefully crafted scenario and instructions for the role player. The role players must be given ample time to rehearse the role and to make suggestions for improvements. The jobs of role playing and assessing are generally undertaken by separ ate indviduals. It is very easy for an assessor/role player to become emotionally involved in the exercise to the detriment of objectively evaluating subject performance. It follows that role players should not participate in the evaluation process. In dimension specific centres, the assessors are expected to observe subject behaviours, to record the behaviours, to classify the behaviours into trait or construct categories, and to score them. The task specific centre uses the same observation record sequence, but does not require classification into complex trait or construct categories. In both types of assessment centres, there is a requirement for behaviour observation aids such as checklists. In task specific centres the checklists can include a short list of items considered important for successfully accomplishing the work sample exercise. The behaviour observation procedure should include a method for recording the subject's actions. At the conclusion of the exercise, the assessors should have an opportunity to share with each other what they saw and heard, without making any evaluation or divulging their score. Upon conclusion of the exercise, the assessors should prepare a written summary of the subject's strengths and weaknesses to be given to the candidate after the Centre has been completed. In essence the assessors do not at tempt to achieve any form of consensus on the scores; they pool the observed behaviours to ensure that all relevant behaviours are considered. Scoring based on all observed behaviours, the assessor will enter a score for each of the listed actions. An overall score may be required. This overall score is not an arithmetic average of the checklist items, rather it is based on the assessors overall opinion of the effectiveness of the subjects in this exercise. When you take this approach it is possible to calculate coefficients for inter-rater reliability and the reliability of the exercise. Section III: The Performance Appraisal Process Who should do the ratings? Conway and Huffcut (1997) have observed that multi-source-rating systens have become increasingly popular in recent years. These systems typically make use of supervisors, peers, and the workers themselves (self-ratings). Murphy and Cleland (1995) conjectured that subordinates and peers have more opportunity than supervisors to observe interpersonal behaviours. Conversely supervisors have been found to have higher reliabilities, and Conway and Huffcut speculate that this is possibly because it is part of a supervisor's job to evaluate and be observant of staff. In their meta-analysis, Conway and Huffcutt (1997) found that no one source had a particularly high reliability for a single rater, and managerial jobs in particular produced low reliabilities. Fortunately multiple raters are often available (at least for peers and subordinates). There has been a demonstration of moderately positive correlations with objective criteria such as productivity, salary change and promotions. Conway and Huffcut (1997) have found that composite ratings were found to maximise reliabilities. Conway and Huffcut concluded that each source demonstrated some evidence of validity. Viswesvaran et al (1996) meta-analytically summarised supervisor and peer reliabilities. For overall performance ratings (either a single rating or a composite) they found mean single rater reliabilities of .52 for supervisors and .42 for peers. Saavedra and Kwun (1993) are worth citing in some detail on the role of peer ratings. Like Cleveland and Murphy (1995) these authors argue that peer ratings can make a unique contribution to performance appraisal. Particularly in contexts where self managing work groups are the main form of work organisation. These authors argue that peers are possibly the best-informed source of information on performance appraisal ratings because they are able to observe each others' task behaviours and interpe rsonal behaviours. Westerman (1996) cites research to the effect that peers provide information on different performance dimensions than do traditional supervisory ratings. According to Westerman, peers are more differentiate effort from performance and focus on task-relevant abilities and competencies. Norton (1992) conducted a meta-analysis of studies of peer ratings. Norton (1992) made the following comment: "It appears that, given certain favourable contextual factors, peer assessments of ability and/or performance may show substantial validity. Much of the observed variance in the validity of peer assessments may actually be due to statistical artifacts (such as sampling error and imperfect reliability) and other less than ideal measurement conditions. …. Based on the above resu lts, it appears that peer assessments are most informative (and hence most valid) when (a) peers have had sufficient time to become familiar with each other's work-related qualifications, skills and abilities, (b) objectively measured criteria will be used for validation, and (c) peers believe that the data they provide will only be used for research purposes, as opposed to impacting upon practical decisions that affect the individual being rated. The author concluded that even when ratings were conducted f or administrative purposes, the size of validity correlation was still impressive. There are limitations associated with peer ratings. In their study of peer assessments made by business graduate students, Saavedra and Kwun (1993) mention that generally peer ratings are not well accepted by raters or ratees except when they are used for developmental purposes. Also group members will typically underrate peers who are more capable than average members and overrate those members who are less capable. Saavedra and Kwun (1993) also note that peer ratings tend to be less accurate than other peer assessment methods such as peer rankings and peer nominations. The question that Saavedra and Kwun explored in their 1993 article was whether adjustments in ratings were due to incomplete knowledge of the performance distribution (i.e. an inaccurate anchoring point) or whether it reflected self interest (i.e. adjustment processes that enhance own standing). Saavedra and Kwun (1993) found that a group members performance level influenced his or her rating of peers. Below average contributors and average contributors were less discriminating in their ratings of peers, and it was inferred that their anchoring and adjustment processes were biased. Outstanding contributors were more discriminating evaluators than average or below average contributors even when the evaluato r asked for inclusion of a self rating. For this reason, Saavedra and Kwun (1993) included the instruction for raters to allocate performance appraisal scores among group members including the raters themselves. Saavedra and Kwun (1993) also mention that peer ratings provide a psychometric advantage when they are pooled in that they increase reliability and partially remove the idiosyncratic biases of any particular rater. Irrespective of the rater's perspective, Kulik and Ambrose (1992) suggest that both self and supervisory raters prefer the multiple comparison standard because it incorporates more points of view allowing for a more comprehensive evaluation. Peer appraisals may offer other procedural justice benefits as well. Of the seven procedural elements used y individuals to form evaluations of outcome fairness, five may be positively influenced by use of peer appraisals: setting ground rules, change mechanisms, gathering information, safeguards and selection of agents. Peer appraisals that allow groups to stipulate the dimensions of performance that are relevant criteria for appraisal, grant employees voice in the setting of ground rules, and t his may have the added effect of increasing the validity of the appraisal, (Westerman, 1996). The next question is how many raters there should be and under what conditions should ratings take place. Antonioni (1996) argued that contributors to the rating process should remain anonymous. Results from Antonioni's survey showed that appraisers who are accountable give higher ratings than appraisers who are anonymous. Conversely managers who were being appraised by the 360-degree process wanted their raters to be accountable. Antonioni (1996) argued that to ensure anonymity, there should be five or more direct contributing raters of any single individual. Antonioni (1996) noted however that the organisations in the research program lowered their requirements to three raters, (including peers). Maurer, Raju and Collins (1998) compared peer and subordinate ratings and they found that the most notable difference between subordinate and peer ratings occurs on the threshold between the highest and second highest categories. Peer raters seemed to have slightly higher standards; it took more underlyi ng skill of a manager's part to receive a rating in the highest category. Diary Maintenance Diary keeping is regarded as a useful, but infrequently used device in performance appraisal systems, (Maroney and Buckley, 1992). DeNisi and Peters (1996) commented that unstructured information makes it inherently difficult for raters to accurately rate subordinates even if they wished to do so. Raters who maintained diaries were less prone to error than those who did not maintain diaries. It was found that diary keeping led to better memory organisation, which in turn promoted better recall an d ratings. These raters were also more confident in their ratings, than raters who did not maintain diaries. There has been some discussion over the manner in which diaries should be structured. When diary information is structured by task, then raters would store information according to tasks, (DeNisi, Robbins and Cafferty, 1989). Conversely, when diaries are organised by "person" more information is recalled overall. Raters who organised their material on a "person" basis were found to recall a lower percentage of positive information and a greater percentage of descriptive inform ation, (DeNisi and Peters, 1996). It seems that organising diaries in terms of people improved raters' ability to recall and differentiate examples of effective and ineffective performance exhibited by a given ratee. DeNisi (1989) also found that there was support for diary maintenance as a means of keeping structured information in memory that allows for more accurate recall and improved ratings. These findings occurred in the presence of an inbasket task that placed competing demands on raters' attention, highlighting the benef its of diary keeping even during the short duration of the experiment. Maroney and Buckley (1992) also recommended recording exemplary incidents that cover the range of behaviours in each dimension. These authors also comment that although employees may not exhibit equal numbers of positive and negative behaviours, a set number of recordings in each dimension are still recommended, in order that any one dimension may not be over-represented. They suggest this on the basis that it will be easier to detect rater bias, as it is also unlikely that all an employees' beha viours will be either positively or negatively skewed for all dimensions. Maroney and Buckley (1992) recommendations presuppose that the performance appraisal system will be based on critical incident methodology. The difficulty of this approach is that it can lead to an exemption of lesser but still none the less important mundane job performance behaviours that are necessary for every day performance of the job. For this reason it is preferable to structure diaries in the context of behaviourally anchored rating scales, where a predesignated number of incidents exist for each dimension within a set period of time. Also that incidents are recorded according to a distribution that has been witnessed for each employee. DeNisi (1989) also found that given choice raters' preferred to organise their diaries in terms of people when they were given a choice. It is also important that diary keeping be undertaken in conjunction with rater training. Bernadin and Beatty (1984) found that diary keeping promoted greater inter-rater agreement, and that diary keeping was less subject to leniency and halo effect when raters had been trained. Training and Rater Error Armstrong (1998) argues that both managers and employees should be trained in the skills required for successful performance management. This author discusses the need for training which incorporates the skills of objective setting, providing feedback, coaching and counselling. Both parties in the performance management process would require guidance and training in the use of competences, the preparation of performance agreements and plans, the preparation for and conduct of performance reviews, ratings and the completion of review forms. Training should cover the following areas: 1. The aims and objectives of performance management; 2. The sequence of activities that will take place 3. How to carry out or participate in the following processes 4. Agreeing key tasks 5. Setting objectives 6. Agreeing skill, knowledge and competence requirements 7. Reviewing performance on a continuing basis 8. Providing feedback 9. Counselling and coaching 10. Preparing work and development plans Armstrong recommends developing a series of training modules, as it would be difficult for trainees to absorb more than one module at a time. It is also suggested that the modules be presented in two programs, the first program would incorporate modules 1 to 4, whilst the second program would incorporate modules 5 to 8. The modules could consist of: 1. Introduction to performance management 2. Defining key tasks and objective setting 3. Working with attributes and competences - analysis and measurement 4. Preparing work and development plans 5. Conducting review meetings 6. Rating 7. Providing feedback 8. Coaching and counselling On the specifics of coaching training, Antonioni (1996) has argued that training for coaches (whether they be consultants or supervisors) should include active listening, focused interviewing, selecting targeted improvement areas, dealing with feelings and reactions to unexpected negative feedback, setting specific goals and action plans, follow-up, and ways of shaping the development of new behavioural habits. The research on performance appraisal training has mainly focused on the efficacy of different types of performance appraisal rater training in mitigating rater error. Woehr and Huffcut's (1994) review of performance appraisal training indicated that a combination of different training types was required. These authors found that frame of reference training (FOR) followed by behavioural observation training was most effective in terms of reducing rater error. The effectiveness of FOR training was also demonstrated in a study by Stamoulis and Hauenstein (1993). The primary goal of FOR training is for raters to share and use common conceptualisations of performance when making evaluations. It has been hypothesised by Woehr (1994) that FOR training will be used by raters as the basis for information processing in the evaluation process and will be demonstrated through improved ratings using different indices of accuracy, (i.e. differential elevation, differential accuracy). The comments of Arvey and M urphy (1998) are quite germaine. These authors note that little effort has been made in the studies, which evaluate the reasons for the efficacy of FOR training to directly measure the information processing that hypothetically goes on as a result of the training. Feedback Fletcher (1991) has commented that feedback is an essential element if effective learning is to take place. It is well established within the literature that employees respond more positively to participatory styles of feedback. DeGregorio and Fisher (1988) compared several participative formats, and found that these approaches tended to be more likely to result in more positive subordinate perceptions than unilateral methods of feedback. No one particular participative method was considered consistently superior, and appraisal methods did not have a differential impact on post feedback performance. Thi s is in contrast to earlier research which established that critical, unilateral methods will actually increase defensiveness and reduce subsequent subordinate performance, (Kay, Meyer and French, 1965). There is also a disadvantage to supervisors being the sole source of feedback, as the information provided by supervisors can be seen as irrelevant or error prone. Greller (1980) discovered that subordinates placed more credence in information provided to them by sources that were central to the employees' performance. These sources included the task, co-workers and self-assessments. Antonioni (1996) argues that most appraisees need someone they can openly discuss their appraisal results with. The appraisee's reaction to feedback will determine whether he or she makes constructive use of the feedback. Thus it is important for appraisees and their coaches to be aware of the range of possible individual reactions. Antonioni specifies two dimensions which can influence the range of reaction1) the appraiser's desire for changes in the appraisee's work performance 2) the extent to which feedback from the performance appraisal system has come as a surprise to the appraisee. Reactions to type one feedback are positive because self-appraisal is congruent with positive feedback. Reactions to type two feedback are also positive because the appraisee received positive feedback that they themselves were not expecting. Reactions to type three feedback are usually neutral because the appraisee expected and agreed with the low 360-degree feedback. This area is definitely labeled as an area for improvement. Reactions to unexpected negative feedback (type 4) can vary from conf usion to defensiveness. Unexpected negative feedback is most difficult for appraisee's to accept and they will require more time to process such feedback. The manner in which feedback is delivered is also critical. Negative feedback should only be delivered after the appraisee has been given a full opportunity to present their position and views. If this opportunity is not presented, the appraisee's defence mechanisms will cause them to discount any negative feedback on the grounds that the rater has not accepted all th e information pertaining to their performance. The role of feedback is also important in predicting the possible direction of ratings. Shore, Adams and Tashchian (1998) found that the identified purpose of the rating process had a significant impact on the direction of the rations. The identified purpose also had an interaction with the system of accountabilities attached to the performance appraisal system. There were two conditions of identified purpose in Shore et al 's study. The first condition was developmental for the subordinate's per formance, the second condition was administrative (i.e. would the subordinate be recommended for a research position on campus). These authors found that raters with knowledge of high self assessment by a subordinate rated the subordinate significantly more positively than did those rating subordinates with a reported low self assessment. The subjects inflated ratings relative to actual performance levels when presented with a high self assessment rating, but assigned performance ratings closer to the actual performance when given access to low (accurate) self assessed ratings. In other words, managers can soften the ratin g to be more congruent with the subordinate's self-perception, so as to avoid a negative confrontation. However, when ratings are to be fed back to a higher organisational agent (such as senior managers) then ratings are less likely to be inflated. This was particularly the case when raters were led to believe that their decisive would result in administrative outcomes, (i.e. that employment of the subordinate in a research role). Section IV: Conclusions It is clear that the practice of performance appraisal has much to gain from being informed by the psychological literature in this area. Irrespective of whether a performance appraisal system relies on personality measures or task behaviour measures, the performance appraisal system must be based upon a job analysis. All job analysis methodologies rely on a comprehensive documentation of the tasks performed by job incumbents. The inclusion of skills, attributes, and requisite personality traits depends on whether the developers of the performance appraisal system wish to conceive of the job domain in terms of both job context and job content. A sound job analysis is necessary to ensure that performance indicators are relevant and representative of the job domain. This initial step is also crucial from the point of ensuring that the performance appraisal system meets legal and legislative requirements, and is seen as being a fair and unbiased measure of an employee's performance. In the past, proponents of performance appraisal decried the application of personality measures in predicting and managing employee performance. It was argued that personality measures did not provide information that was sufficiently specific in creating behavioural change. It is noteworthy that available literature on personality measures of performance have not yet addressed the role of feedback and coaching for employees. It is also noteworthy that the literature on personality measures of p erformance does not address the possibility of mutliple values systems and subcultures existing within a single workplace or organisation. This has particular implications for Australian workplaces which have a strong history of industrial militancy, where there is a pragmatic requirement to accommodate additional cultural values systems beside those values which are espoused by management. Indeed the most of the research on personality measures of performance has been conducted on white collar sales workfo rces or in a military context. Such workplaces do not have an institutional history of competing power bases outside of the managerial chain of command. It is therefore relatively simple to establish a uniform set of cultural values which express what is considered to be contextual "good performance". Definition of organisational citizenship behaviours or pro-social behaviours becomes more complex when there is a contradiction between awards, custom and practice and management ideology. This contradiction in turn affects the relevance and utility of personality measures which may rely exclusively on a managerial definition of pro-organisational citizenship behaviours. There was also a suggestion that personality measures may be more vulnerable to manipulation from subordinates who practice &qu ot;impression management behaviours" with their supervisors and superiors. The need for multiple raters in the performance appraisal process was also promoted in the present paper. It is quite evident from available research that no single ratings source was particularly valid. Validity of performance appraisal ratings was greatly enhanced when a system of combined supervisory, peer and self ratings was used. Each ratings source was seen to contribute a different type of information, and mutiple ratings were a useful device to counter rating error stemming from inadequa te opportunity to observe the appraisee. This may also be a useful device to counter possible bias which could occur in situations where there has been prolonged and bitter industrial disputation. Multi-rater systems are a structural counter to accusations of management or peer bias. Diary keeping and the structure of diaries was considered by this paper. This paper highlighted the value of maintaining contemporaneous notes from a procedural justice perspective and with a view to reducing rater bias. Diaries can also be structured to promoted balanced recall of events. This is significant as unstructured diaries can have the effect of encouraging raters to overlook more mundane, but no less essential job behaviours. It was noted that diary keeping became particularly effectiv e in reducing rater bais when diaries in maintained in conjunction with rater bias training. Training was presented as a key support feature in the performance appraisal process. The material outlined in this paper indicated that specific training modules need to be developed for each step of the performance appraisal process. It is not sufficient to provide training that simply explains a performance appraisal system to all the participants. It is equally crucial for ratings accuracy, that raters be trained to adopt a specific frame of reference and be cognisant of the different types of bias. Reference List Algera, J.A. and Greuter, M.A.M. Job Analysis, Chapter 7, Personnel Psychology: Handbook of Work and Organisational Psychology, 1998. Eds. Pieter Drenth, Henk Thierry, Charles de Wolff. 2nd Edition. Armstrong, M. (1998). Performance Management. Kogan Page, London. Antioni, D. (1996). Designing an effective 360-degree appraisal feedback process. Organisational Dynamics. 25(2), 24-38. Arvey, R.D. and Murphy, K.R. (1998) Performance Evaluation in Work Settings. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 141 - 168 Bernadin, H. J. and Buckley, M.R. (1981) Strategies in Rater Training, Academy of Management Review, 6, 205-221. Bernadin, H. J. and Beatty, R. W. (1984) Performance appraisal: Assessing human behaviour at work. Boston: PWS-Kent. Bobrow, W. and Leonards, J.S. (1997) Development and Validation of an assessment centre during organisational change. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, 12 (5), 217 - 236 Conway, J. Understanding method variance in multi-trait multi-rater performance appraisal matrices: examples using general impressions and interpersonal affect as measured method factors. Conway, J.M. and Huffcut, A.I. (1997) Psychometric Properties of Multisource Performance Ratings: A Meta-Analysis of Subordinate, Supervisor, Peer and Self-Ratings. Human Performance, Vol 10(4), 331-360 Cronbach, S.F. (1998). Job Analysis: Changing Nature of Work. Canadian Psychology, 39 (1-2), 5-13. Day, D.V., Schleicher, D.J. and Unckless, A.L. (1996). Self monitoring and work-related outcomes: A meta-analysis. Paper presented at the 11th Annual Conference of the Society of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, San Diego, CA. DeGregorio, M.B. and Fisher, C.D. (1988) Providing performance feedback: Reactions to alternate methods. Journal of Management, 14 (4), 605 - 616 DeNisi, A. S. and Peters, L.H. (1996) Organisation of Information in Memory and the Performance Appraisal Process: Evidence from the field. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol 81 (6), 717 - 737 DeNisi, A.S., Robbins, T. and Cafferty, T.P. (1989). The organisation of information used for performance appraisals: The role of diary keeping. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 124-129. Drenth, P. J. D. (1998) Personnel Appraisal, Chapter 4, Personnel Psychology: Handbook of Work and Organisational Psychology, Eds. Pieter Drenth, Henk Thierry, Charles de Wolff. 2nd Edition Fletcher, C. (1991). Assessment, feedback counselling and individual differences: an exploratory study. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 4 (2/3), 103 - 107 Greller, M. M. (1980). Evaluation of feedback sources as a function of role and organisational level. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 24-27 Hattrup, K., O'Connell, M.S. and Wingate, P.H. (1998) Prediction of multi-dimensional criteria: distinguishing task and contextual performance. Human Performance, 11 (4), 305 - 319. Hogan, J., Rybicki, S.L., Motowidlo, S.J. and Borman, W.C. (1998). Relations between contextual performance, personality and occupational advancement. Human Performance, 11 (2/3), 189 - 207. Hogan, R. and Shelton, D. (1998) A Socioanalytic Perspective on Job Performance. Human Performance, 11 (2/3), 129 - 144. Kay, E., Meyer, H.H. and French, JR. (1965) Effects of threat in a performance appraisal interview. Journal of applied psychology, 49, 311 - 317 Lowry, P.E. (1997) The Assessment Centre Process: New Directions. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality. Vol 12, No. 5, 53 - 63 Maddux, R.B. (1993) Effective Performance Appraisals: A Practical Guide for more productive and positive performance appraisals. Crisp Publications, Inc. Menlo Park, California. Maroney, B.P. and Buckley, R. (1992), Does Research in Performance Appraisal Influence the Practice of Performance Appraisal? Regretfully not! Public Personnel Management, Vol 21 (2), 185 - 196 Maurer , T.J. and Tarulli, B.A. (1997) Managerial Work, Job Analysis and Holland's RIASEC Vocational Environmental Dimensions. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 50, 365-381 Maurer, T.J., Raju, N.S. and Collins, W.C. (1998). Peer and subordinate performance appraisal measurement equivalence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83 (5), 693 - 702. Mount, M.K., Barrick, M.R. and Stewart, G.L. (1998) Five factor model of personality and performance in jobs involving interpersonal interactions. Human Performance, 11 (2/3), 145 - 165. Murphy, K.R. and Cleveland, J.N. (1995). Understanding Performance Appraisal: Social, Organisational and Goal Based Perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage. Nowack, K.M., (1997) Congruence between self -other ratings and assessment centre performance. From Riggio, R.E. and Mayes, B.T. (Eds.) Assessment Centres: Research and applications. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, 12 , (5), 145-166. Norton, S.M. (1992). Peer assessments of performance and ability: An exploratory meta-analysis of statistical artifacts and contextual moderators. Journal of Business and Psychology 6 (3), 387 - 399. Saavedra, R. and Kwun, S.K. (1993). Peer evaluation in self managing work groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (3); 450 462. Schrader , B.W. and Steiner, D.D. (1996). Common comparison standards: an approach to improving agreement between self and supervisory performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81 (6), 813 - 820. Shore, T.H., Adams, J.S. and Tashchian, (1998) Effects of self appraisal information, appraisal purpose, and feedback target on performance appraisal ratings, 12 (3), 283 - 298 Stamoulis, D.T. and Hauenstein, N. M. A. (1993). Rater training and rater accuracy: Training for dimensional accuracy versus training for ratee differentiation. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol 78 (6), pp 994 - 1003. Sulsky, L.M. and Keown, J.L. (1998). Performance appraisal in the changing world of work: Implications for the meaning and measurement of work performance. Canadian Psychology, 39 (1-2), 52 - 59. Tornow, W.W. (1993), Perceptions or reality? Is multi-perspective measurement a means or an end? Human Resource Management. 32: 2211-2229. Varma, A., Denisi, A.S. and Peters, L.H. Interpersonal Affect and Performance Appraisal: A field study. Personnel Psychology, 49, 341 - 360 Viswesvaran, C. Ones, D.S. and Schmidt, F.L. (1996). Comparative analysis of the reliability of job performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(5); 557-574. Warech, M.A., Smither, J.W., Reilly, R.R., Millsap, R.E., Reilly, S.P.. Self-Monitoring and 360-Degree Ratings. Leadership Quarterly, 9(4), 449 -473. Wayne, S.J. and Liden R.C. (1995). Effects of impression management on performance ratings: A longitudinal study. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 232-260. Westerman, J. W. (1996). Rethinking the role of performance appraisal in total quality management: An argument for the use of peers as raters. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 9 (4), 272 - 284 Williams, R.S. (1998). Performance Management: Perspectives on employee performance. International Thomson Business Press. London. Woehr, D.J. and Huffcut, A.I. (1994). Rater training for performance appraisal: A quantitative review. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology, 67, 189 - 205  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[16]=new Array("../members/members04.html","MKA Risk -  Papers and Reviews - Fatigue Management","MKA Risk Fatigue Management Literature review of Comparisons between 12 and 8 hour shifts Authored by Caroline Fisher ","Discussion Papers PAPERS Occupational Stress Performance Management Fatigue Management Conflict Resolution Employee Assistance Programs Harassment Prevention Drugs in the Workplace Fatigue Management Literature review of Comparisons between 12 and 8 hour shifts (11th Feb 2005) Authored by Caroline Fisher In recent decades, an increased need has developed for many organisations to operate their workplaces continuously over a 24-hour period, due to the nature of the work, technological developments, economic pressures and an increased demand for 24-hour services (Bendak, 2003). However, shift workers who work traditional shift rotations (consisting of six or seven straight shifts, with one full weekend off every four to six weeks) often display perturbed performance, increased or more serious accid ents, lowered production, higher absenteeism, health problems, familial problems, low morale, and job dissatisfaction when they work nights and rotating shifts (Duchon, Keran & Smith, 1994). The problems faced my individual shift workers are both complex and multi-faceted, and unlike most occupational stressors, can impinge on the whole of their lives (Folkard, 1993). A conceptual model of the manner in which these problem areas relate to the features of shift systems, and to one another, is shown in At tachment A. In an attempt to address the needs of shift workers and of the organisation, prolonged and continuous work schedules are becoming increasingly commonplace in many work settings. An example of this type of schedule is the "compressed work week", where shift duration is typically lengthened from eight hours to 12 hours; resulting in fewer actual work days and more consecutive days off (Purnell, Feyer & Herbison, 2002). There is a wealth of literature comparing the advantages between 8 hour and 12-hour shifts. However, the research findings are largely equivocal and inconsistent with both advantages and disadvantages of working an extended shift (Smith, Folkard, Tucker & Macdonald, 1998). For example, in a review of the existing research on shiftwork, Bendak (2003) found that of the 49 studies that compared 12 hour shifts with eight hour shifts, some studies found negative effects attributable to 12 hour shif ts, others found positive effects, some found mixed results and some found no differences between the two work durations. These inconsistencies appeared to be irrespective of the type of work being studied, yet related to the differences between studies in assessment measures, shift design factors and uncontrolled differences in levels of work demands and associated workload. Positive evaluations of the implementation of a 12 hour shift system also appeared to be related to the degree of choice an individua l had in whether they were required to work the 12 hour shift (Smith, Folkard, Tucker and Macdonald, 1998). Conversion to a compressed working week is often considered because of the perceived potential benefits for production and morale, reduction of sickness absence, and the convenience of having extra time off work (Smith, Folkard, Tucker & Macdonald, 1998). It appears that combining a compressed and a shift schedule may mitigate some of the negative effects frequently associated with shift work and capitalise on some of the positive effects associated with compression (Pierce & Dunham, 1992) . In practice, having more time off work provides more uninterrupted time for recovery, family, leisure and other social activities; which in turn, increases job satisfaction (Johnson & Sharit, 2001), and reduces absenteeism (Duchon, Keran & Smith, 1994; Latack & Foster, 1985). Research conducted by Peacock and associates (1983) found that measures of physical fitness, blood pressure, sleep duration, sleep quality and subjective level of alertness all showed improvements when a 12-hour system wa s adopted in the workplace. Furthermore, Duchon and colleagues (1994) found that survey responses indicated positive effects of the 12-hour schedule on morale, health problems, stress, eating habits, family life and sleep quantity and quality. Twelve-hour shifts are also popular as they reduce the frequency of trips made to and from work (Smith, Folkard, Tucker & Macdonald, 1998). These extended shifts also seem to conserve energy and reduce traffic congestion, particularly since some of the journeys ar e made outside of peak times (Kogi, 1991). There have also been disadvantages attributed to the 12-hour shift work system. The extra four hours worked by employees on 12 hour shifts may increase levels of fatigue and cause disruption to circadian rhythms (Rosekind et al, 1995 in Purnell, Feyer & Herbison, 2002). This may contribute to a general deterioration in employees' immediate and long-term health (Macdonald & Bendak, 2000). Twelve-hour night shifts are of particular concern due to excessive fatigue induced from a long shift a nd high workloads when combined with low alertness levels due to lower endogenous arousal at night (Bendak, 2003). Research has also shown that performance levels considerably drop in the last four hours of a shift, a decrease that is especially prominent on 12-hour shifts. This can be of real concern especially when the job being worked is highly monotonous and sedentary, such as monitoring computer screens (Smith, Folkard, Tucker & Macdonald, 1998). The possible increase in fatigue levels due to exten ding work duration by 4 hours may lead to more errors at work (Baker, Olson & Morisseau, 1994), which in turn may have negative effects on productivity and work quality (Williamson, Gower & Clarke, 1994). Fatigue generated by working a 12 hour shift may also make an individual more susceptible to accidents (Williamson & Feyer, 2000), severe sleepiness, safety problems, weight gain, greater stress states (Ognianova, Dalbokova & Stanchev, 1998), lower morale, lower productivity and economic loss (Bendak, 2003), especially when 12-hour shifts are combined with high workload levels (Macdonald & Bendak, 2000). These factors take on particular importance in industries where public health and safety are concerned (Mitler et al, 1998 in Purnell, Feyer & Herbison, 2002). Additionally, sleep-deprived night workers driving home in the early hours of the morning are at an increased risk of falling asleep at the wheel (Horne & Reyner, 1999). This is because a 12-hour shift does not usually equate with only being active for 12 hours. There can be a considerable extension of the person's time awake on either side of the shift as a result of factors such as a long journey (Smith, Folkard, Tucker and Macdonald, 1998). If the commute exceeds three hours, time available to sleep is reduced to six hours, which is insufficient rest for most adults (Gould, 1989). Theoretically, there is extra recovery time available after the 12 hour shifts have been completed; however it is not clear from the research as to whether this extra time is enough to recover from the extra fatigue induced during the consecutive 12 hour shifts due to the extra 4 hours worked each time (Bendak, 2003). Anderson and Bremer (1987) found that employees who attempted to compensate for sleep loss by sleeping longer than 10 hours on their days off reported greater sleepiness on the job than employees who slept fewer than 10 hours. The extra recovery time may also lead to increased moonlighting (Smith, Folkard, Tucker & Macdonald, 1998). The 12 hour shift also provides less time for other activities during the work week, thus this type of schedule may cause difficulty to some individuals, for example: in managing home duties, childcar e activities, family and social life (Tepas, 1985 in Smith, Hammond, Macdonald & Folkard, 1998). Days off can become boring if a partner works and spending may increase during longer rest breaks. It is possible that spouses may not like the 12-hour schedule, even when the shift worker strongly favours it (Smith, Folkard, Tucker and Macdonald, 1998). However, Harmer and colleagues (2002) state that longer shift durations may not necessarily cause decrements in human performance through induced fatigue if managed properly. Proper management may occur through moderating workload levels and sensibly allocating and distributing rest breaks to allow temporary recovery, and by sensibly scheduling the shift system to allow a complete recovery (Duchon, Keran & Smith, 1994; Bendak, 2003). For example, a short duration nap of 20 minutes taken in the workplace may counteract performance deficits associated with the first night shift (Purnell, Feyer & Herbison, 2002). Periodic assignment of mentally challenging or light physical tasks may also lessen possible fatigue among 12-hour night shift workers (Duchon, Keran & Smith, 1994). Furthermore, rosters should be made to cover overtime without holding a 12-hour shift worker or calling in a worker who has had fewer than three days off after working four 12-hour shifts. A minimum of three days off i s necessary after four 12-hour shifts to alleviate fatigue, as excessive fatigue has been found to develop when employees worked four consecutive 12-hour shifts with only two days off between shifts (Gould, 1989). The consequences of possible human errors should be taken into consideration when deciding on the length of the shift system. It may not be advisable to introduce 12-hour shifts where some errors would have dire consequences (Rosa, 1995 in Bendak, 2003). Various researchers have also concluded that 12-hour workdays are not appropriate, especially at night, for work that includes high physical or mental loads (Kogi, 1991). Unfortunately, however, there has been no research to suggest the levels of workload a cceptable for 12-hour shifts (Bendak, 2003). It is advisable that the organisation takes into consideration the individual's day to day home activities as well as family commitments and social life when deciding on shift duration. Research emphasises, though, that it is flexibility and the opportunity to have some control of working time, that appear to be the significant factors in the way a 12 hour shift system impacts upon the individual (Latack & Foster, 1985; Smith, Hammond, Macdonald & Folkard , 1998). In light of the uncertainties and contradictions in the research on the use of extended workdays in workplaces, it is reasonable to suggest that employees on extended workday schedules be re-evaluated at periodic intervals. One approach may be to use a short questionnaire to elicit employees responses about their schedule, coupled with monitoring of company records pertaining to absenteeism, safety and productivity (Duchon, Keran & Smith, 1994).    References Anderson, R.M., & Bremer, D.A. (1987). Sleep duration at home and sleepiness on the job in rotating twelve-hour shift workers. Human Factors, 29, 477-481. Baker, K., Olson, J., & Morisseau, D. (1994). Work practices, fatigue, and nuclear power plant safety performance. Human Factors, 36, 244-257. Bendak, S. (2003). 12-h workdays: current knowledge and future directions. Work & Stress, 4, 321-336. Duchon, J.C., Keran, C.M., & Smith, T.J. (1994). Extended workdays in an underground mine: A work performance analysis. Human Factors, 36, 258-268. Folkard, S. (1993). Editorial. Ergonomics, 36, 1-2. Gould, S. (1989). Safety considerations related to 12-hour shift schedules. Nuclear Safety, 30, 103-105. Harmer, M., Sallinen, M., Ranta, R., Mutanen, P., & Muller, K. (2002). The effect of an irregular shift system on sleepiness at work in train drivers and railway traffic controllers. Journal of Sleep Research, 11, 141-151. Horne, J., & Reyner, L. (1999). Vehicle accidents related to sleep: a review. Occupational Environmental Medicine, 56, 289-294. Johnson, M.D., & Sharit, J. (2001). Impact of a change from an 8-h to a 12-h shift schedule on workers and occupational injury rates. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 27, 303-319. Kogi, K. (1991). Job content and working time: the scope for joint change. Ergonomics, 34, 757-773. Latack, J.C., & Foster, L.W. (1985). Implementation of compressed work schedules: participation and job redesign as critical factors for employee acceptance. Personnel Psychology, 38, 75-92. Macdonald, W. & Bendak, S. (2000). Effects of workload level and 8- versus 12-h workday duration on test battery performance. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 26, 399-416. Ognianova, V.M., Dalbokova, D.L., & Stanchev, V. (1998). Stress states, alertness and individual differences under 12-hour shiftwork. International Journal of Industrial Economics, 21, 283-291. Peacock, B., Glube, R., Miller, M., & Clune, P. (1983). Police officers' responses to 8 and 12 hour shift systems. Ergonomics, 26, 479-493. Pierce, J.L., & Dunham, R.B. (1992). The 12-hour work day: A 48-hour, eight-day week. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 1086-1098. Purnell, M.T., Feyer, A.-M., & Herbison, G.P. (2002). The impact of a nap opportunity during the night shift on the performance and alertness of 12-h shift workers. Journal of Sleep Research, 11, 219-227. Smith, L., Folkard, S., Tucker, P., & Macdonald, I. (1998). Work shift duration: a review comparing eight hour and 12 hour shift systems. Occupational Environmental Medicine, 55, 217-229. Smith, L., Hammond, T., Macdonald, I., & Folkard, S. (1998). 12-h shifts are popular but are they a solution? International Journal of Industrial Economics, 21, 323-331. Williamson, A.M., & Feyer, A.M. (2000). Moderate sleep deprivation produces impairments in cognitive and motor performance equivalent to legally prescribed levels of alcohol intoxication. Occupational Environmental Medicine, 57, 649-655. Williamson, A.M., Gower, C.G.I., Clarke, B.C. (1994). Changing the hours of shiftwork: a comparison of 8- and 12-hour shift rosters in a group of computer operators. Ergonomics, 37, 287-298.  Attachment A Figure A1. A conceptual model of the manner in which the various problems associated with shift work relate to both one another, and to the features of the shift system (Folkard, 1993).  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[17]=new Array("../members/members05.html","MKA Risk -  Papers and Reviews - Conflict Resolution","MKA Risk Paper on Conflict Resolution (October 2003) Authored by Melissa Yee ","Discussion Papers PAPERS Occupational Stress Performance Management Fatigue Management Conflict Resolution Employee Assistance Programs Harassment Prevention Drugs in the Workplace Conflict Resolution (October 2003) Authored by Melissa Yee All organisations experience conflict but there are often different views about its value. Vecchio, Hearn and Southey (1996) define conflict as involving "incompatible differences between parties that result in interference or opposition" (p. 435). This implies that the differences themselves are not the causes of the conflict, rather it resides in the human reactions in response to it. Sources include poor communication, increased size of the organisation, greater subordinate participation, differences between line and staff personnel, mutually exclusive reward systems, competi tion for limited reward systems, competition for limited resources, unequal distribution of power and differences among individuals. Conflict is essentially based in perceptions (rather than reality) and feelings (rather than facts). Some can be eliminated, some can be minimized, and some need to be managed; however they can only be resolved by dealing with perceptions and feelings. The traditional view of conflict holds that it is essentially harmful, unnecessary and an indication that something is wrong or requires correction. Whilst most remain critical of all conflict, some see it as essential to organisational functioning. That conflict can be harmful in some instances is not denied, but emphasis is now placed on recognising that some forms can be useful in achieving desired goals. According to this perspective, conflict can encourage a search for new tactics and strate gies, and help overcome stagnation and complacency. Tillet (1999) outlines the positive and negative effects of conflict. Positive effects (creative and constructive) Negative effects (destructive) * Prevention of stagnation * Stimulation of interest and curiosity * Encouragement of the examination of problems * Motivation towards problem solving * Personal growth and development through challenge * Promote group identity and cohesion * Stabilize and integrate relationships (release tension) * Encourage critical self-reflection * Encourage interpersonal communication * Promote awareness and exploration of feelings, needs and opinions * Encourage creativity and innovation * Provoking anger, anxiety, distress, fear and aggression * Breaks down relationships * hinders communication * obstructs problem-solving * Limits critical self-reflection * hinders self development * Destroys group cohesion and identity Either way, managers will need to understand the causes of conflict and to be familiar with methods of resolution. The focus is on the successful management of conflict rather than its total elimination. In most cases, a modest level of conflict actually encourages involvement and innovation. This indicates that some situations may in fact benefit from the creation of conflict. Some specific techniques for initiating conflict include: appointing managers who are open to change, encouraging compet ition and restructuring the work unit. Conflict resolution is a problem-solving approach to conflict that enables participants to work together towards its resolution. It is fundamentally a set of practical skills and training that should expose participants to a wide array of conflict resolution strategies, techniques and practices. A flexible, adaptable and collaborative approach is generally more effective as it promotes cooperation. The most effective method involving the people directly involved and requires a great deal of talki ng. However, not all conflicts can be resolved externally and internal or intrapersonal techniques may be necessary. These may include stress management, peer support, counselling or therapy. Although conflict resolution may make use of a number of different approaches, methods and styles, Tillet (1999) proposes a stage model of resolution outlining a basic process through which the conflict of resolution usually works. In general the following stages are usually worked through: 1. The first stage of a conflict resolution model requires agreements in 3 major areas: agreement on the problem; agreement on the process - including definite proposals of when and where to meet and how the discussion will be arranged; and agreement on the plan for resolution. Maintaining a tentative and conditional outline for the desired outcome will help to foster flexibility and trust between participants. 2. The second stage requires participants to share their feelings and perceptions to understand each other, without interruption or evaluation, regarding their experience and their response to the conflict. This requires effective communication, assertiveness and active listening. 3. Each party should be given the opportunity to respond without defence, denial or allegation. This stage should include as much clarification of and agreement on, the facts of the conflict as possible. 4. Specific, practical and achievable objectives should be outlined defining the agenda and boundaries. Collaboration in accomplishing set objectives promotes a sense of control, mutual achievement and success. It may be useful to break these down to smaller, more manageable segments so as to heighten the sense of achievement. 5. Possible options and solutions should be identified through 'brainstorming' without evaluation, criticism or argument 6. Each option should be evaluated in terms of how effectively each option meets the objectives. Evaluation is most effective in terms of problem solving rather than winning, point scoring or winning. 7. Participants should choose and agree on the option they jointly prefer. This may involve negotiation, however consensus of all interested parties must be reached. 8. The implementation of the solution should be planned and must include a definite time frame and proposal for review. The final decision should be committed to writing and all parties must clearly understand their roles and responsibilities in resolving the conflict 9. The implementation and solution should be evaluated and reviewed either at a pre-arranged time or when objectives are accomplished. This should cover how effective the plan has been as well as identify how effective they believe the solution to be and how they feel about the situation overall. 10. Participants need to develop a defined test for resolution on the point at which resolution has occurred and the matter has been resolved. They need to determine when they will accept that the conflict has been resolved in order to avoid it recycling over and over again. Disclaimer: The information provided on this page does not constitute treatment and in no way replaces direct advice from qualified professionals providing tailored solutions to particular workplaces and individuals. References: Tillet, G. (1999) Resolving Conflict: A Practical Approach, 2nd Edition. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Vecchio R.P., Hearn, G. & Southey, G. (1996). Organisational Behaviour (2nd Ed). Australia: Harcourt Brace & Company  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[18]=new Array("../members/members06.html","MKA Risk -  Papers and Reviews - Employee Assistance Programs","MKA Risk Paper on Employee Assistance Programs (17th Feb 2003) Authored by Michelle Sarkis ","Discussion Papers PAPERS Occupational Stress Performance Management Fatigue Management Conflict Resolution Employee Assistance Programs Harassment Prevention Drugs in the Workplace Employee Assistance Programs (17th Feb 2003) Authored by Michelle Sarkis Common workplace concerns that can impact on employees include job insecurity, changes in the nature of work and conflicts with managers or other workers, career planning or retirement. Other issues include marital or relationship difficulties, worries about children and aged relatives, substance abuse or gambling problems, anxiety or depression. Repairing the damage when it all gets too much comes with a hefty price tag with stressed workers costing companies around $1 billion each year in lost revenue. If the indirect costs of absenteeism, accidents, loss of employment, marital and family distress and other community costs are included, this figure may be closer to $4 billion (Brettargh, 2001) To help reduce these costs, a growing number of companies are introducing some form of employee assistance programs (EAP) to help employees deal productively with stressful situations, whether they occur at home or at work. EAPs provide counselling and consulting services to Australian workplaces. They are a relatively new counselling benefit that allow psychologically distressed workers and sometimes dependents of workers, free and confidential access to mental health professionals. These progra ms have their historical roots in the area of alcohol and substance abuse and from this comes the tradition of providing counselling and consulting services aimed at preventing or assisting with personal problems experienced by employees or members of their family. Programs generally last between three to five counselling sessions, as they are not intended to be a long-term health intervention. Most issues are able to be resolved within a limited number of sessions. Problems of a more serious clinical natur e would be screened and referred to specialist services. It is employed as one of the main occupational stress interventions. Individual level counselling is the core activity but other services aimed at an organisational level are also available. EAPs are expected to offer (Cotton & Fisher, 1995): · Assessment - problem clarification · Interventions - advisory/welfare, counselling, mediation, psycho-educational and specialised psychological interventions including brief therapy · Training - early detection of stress, conflict resolution, team building and supervisor/manager skills · Prevention - reduction of workplace psychological hazards, stress education and prevention and psychological health promotion An EAP scheme is generally run by a group of professionals and associates who are external to the organisation (i.e. they are not employees of the company that is paying for the programs). Services are usually provided outside the workplace to ensure privacy and counsellors maintain strict confidentiality. No information about what was discussed in the session may be relayed to the employer or any other person withou the written consent of the employee or family member involved. EAP services consist of expert consultation and training in the identification and resolution of a wide range of job performance issues; confidential, appropriate and timely assessment services and referrals for appropriate diagnosis, treatment and assistance (Fearing, 2000). In addition, EAPs are able to establish links between the workplace and community resources, provide follow up services for employees who use treatment services and assist coordination with managed care and treatment provide rs. For EAPs to work, programs must have the support of both senior management and unions. There must also be a clear set of policies established about the way in which employee assistance programs are to work within the organisation. Training sessions should also be conducted with supervisors to assist in early problem identification and referrals. Organisations need to be aware of the range and prevalence of psychological hazards and issues in their workplaces and the at risk groups in their work environment. Australian EAP providers normally give annual regular reports to the organisation on the number of staff using the EAP, the reasons for seeking counselling, generic data on issues raised, work areas and classification of employees. The reports present information on group usage in group terms and no individual client accessing the pro gram is identified. Reports are structured so as to provide information on: · Organisational hot spots. · Monitoring of staff morale. · Providing information to managers on his/her section's "psychological well being." · Providing feedback about perceptions of manager's performance. · Working with and encouraging attention to an organisation's culture. · Feedback on change management. · Ensuring development of effective human resources strategies and practices. This collated information provides valuable feedback to an organisation on employees generally, workplaces and issues. Important things employers should consider when choosing a program provider include the provider's experience, the training and credentials of their staff, their locations, the scope of their service and the hours the service is available to employees. Employee Assistance Programs - Martha Knox and Associates The EAPs offered by Martha Knox and Associates are unique for several reasons. · Firstly, an intense level of organisational research is conducted prior to the program being implemented, providing consultants with an indepth level of knowledge and understanding of workplace relationships. Specifically, workforce demographics are profiled and materials such as annual reports, newspaper articles and industry journals are regularly utilised. Interviews with relevant managers, supervisors and employee representatives are also conducted, enabling consultants to provide inter ventions that are workplace appropriate and useful for the counselling client. This avoids the "sausage factory" effect that is often associated with large employee service providers using a one-model approach of generalist counselling for all employees. In fact, the difficulty with many large EAP providers is that referrals can get lost in the system and naïve counsellors, (who have not been appropriately briefed about the workplace), can provide advice that is counterproductive to the workp lace and client. Hence, the initial organisational case study conducted by Martha Knox and Associates ensure that the EAP consultants maintain a strong sense of what is appropriate and expected within that workplace. · The second defining feature of the EAPs provided by Martha Knox and Associates are that the consultants are organisational psychologists with extensive clinical experience and a strong background in dealing with the workers compensation system. Whilst other EAP providers tend to recruit counsellors or clinical psychologists, our consultants have either worked as management consultants to senior executives, been employed as rehabilitation officers or in human resources. In addition to the ir corporate backgrounds, consultants also have significant work experience in working with clinical populations (i.e. anger management, substance abuse, eating disorders, depression and post traumatic stress disorder). This combination of a working knowledge of organisational systems such as workers compensation, performance management and occupational health and safety with good clinical skills is another defining feature of the EAPs provided by Martha Knox and Associates. · Finally, in terms of the level of investment held with clinical supervision, the structured clinical supervision program offered by Martha Knox and Associates ensures access to the latest techniques and research. Supervision by a paid professional is conducted one evening a month. We continue to do a regular scan through Australian journals to identify who the top experts are in specific clinical areas. If we cannot get that expert to visit our workplace, the counsellors attend training workshops in given clinical conditions. Professionals from the law or finance also deliver training. Monthly sessions are supplemented with peer supervision sessions, where counsellors from three different practices meet and discuss case studies on a confidential basis. Disclaimer: The information provided on this page does not constitute treatment and in no way replaces direct advice from qualified professionals providing tailored solutions to particular workplaces and individuals. References Brettargh, A. "Throwing a Lifeline". HR Monthly, February, 2001. Cotton, P. (Ed.) (1995). Psychological Health in the Workplace: Understanding and managing occupational stress. Carlton: The Australian Psychological Society. Fearing, J. (2000) Workplace Intervention. Minnesota: Hazeldon  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[19]=new Array("../members/members08.html","MKA Risk -  Papers and Reviews - Harassment Prevention","MKA Risk Paper on Bullying and Harassment Prevention (October 2003) Authored by Melissa Yee ","Discussion Papers PAPERS Occupational Stress Performance Management Fatigue Management Conflict Resolution Employee Assistance Programs Harassment Prevention Drugs in the Workplace Harassment Prevention (October 2003) Authored by Melissa Yee Harassment is a particular form of discrimination and is behaviour designed to make a person feel unwelcome, offended, humiliated and/or intimidated. It is illegal if it adversely affects a person's employment. There is an emphasis on it being repeated behaviour, often in front of co-workers, clients or customers. In the workplace it can be identified by looking at increased levels of sick leave, staff turnover and decreased productivity in a particular area. Specifically, the types of injuries r esulting from bullying and violence in the workplace are both physiological (bruising, cuts, fractures) and psychological (anxiety disorders, depression, social phobias, insomnia and stress conditions). The effects are not limited to the target of the attacks as witnesses may also suffer significant distress and anxiety. Businesses are being forced to recognise bullying's impact as costs have been shown to impact the Australian economy between $6 billion and $13 billion each year up to $36 billion if a high er incidence rate occurred (O'Hagan, 2002). Indications that bullying may be occurring in the workplace can be direct (complaints, incident reports) or indirect (negative feedback on working relationships from staff at exit interviews, high absenteeism and turnover, difficulty in retaining new recruits, physical cues from an individual such as regularly torn uniforms and broken tools or, multiple minor workplace injuries). In particular, organisational change (internal restructuring potentially causing poor informational flow, and poor wor kplace relationships) and job change (particularly without clearly defining new role) can lead to environments that foster bullying behaviour. Warnings signs that bullying is occurring should be addressed by management. Approaches can include reviewing work hours and staff rosters, fostering open communication, conducting anonymous staff surveys, and scheduling 'casual' meetings with potential victims. Employers are responsible for providing a safe working environment to their employees without health risks. Thus, the employer has a duty to ensure as far as is practicable that bullying and violence do not occur in the workplace. The main way this can be accomplished is to establish an open system of communication at all levels within the organisation and ensure mechanisms are in place to allow employee input in decision making. The employee is in turn responsible for ensuring they take reasonab le care of their own safety and of others', and that they co-operate with management in any action taken by the organisation to provide a safe work environment. To prevent bullying and violence in the workplace, an organisation must set clear guidelines and have simple precautions in place at the commencement of employment to counter all forms of harassment, including bullying. These can be used as the basis for a program to identify, investigate and resolve instances of workplace bullying and violence against all staff (including supervisors and management) occurring in an organisation from internal (co-workers, supervisors and management) and external sources (clients and customers). Employers can use the guidelines to reduce the risk of this occurring and to educate employees on how to reduce the risk of exposure to bullying and occupational violence within the workplace. Employers must ensure they have the employee read the company policy and sign a declaration that they have. These policies need to be absolutely clear on what would be seen as serious misconduct. In general, workplace training should be implemented immediately, before any problems aris e. Induction is the time to devote significant amount of time to this. Employees should also be regularly updated, preferably with fresh approaches to keep the issue and the information alive. Preventative measures which can be taken to minimise the risks of bullying occuring within the organisation include: § consult and discuss within the organisation, § create an awareness of the issues, § develop policy, § provide training, information and instruction for staff, § look for warning signs, and § encourage reporting of incidents. An organisation needs to consult with their staff (including management and supervisors), drawing on their experience, knowledge and ideas when first realising a workplace bullying and violence strategy. This should happen in the most productive setting for the organisation (committee meetings, informal discussions, staff meetings, etc). All levels of staff should have input in the decision-making process (awareness raising policy, no-bullying policy, reporting procedures, incident investigation procedures) as open organisations with good channels of communication at all levels tend to have lower incidence of bullying. During this process organisations should provide employees with information (e.g. policies and procedures), training (e.g. employee in a supervisory role provided with training to acquire appropriate skills) and instruction that enables staff to work safely and without risk to their health. Management should encourage staff to report any incidents of bullying and violence. The formal reporting of incidents allows an employer to address specific instances of bullying, to understand the nature and extent of bullying occurring within the organisation and to provide assistance promptly to individuals affected by bullying. The system of reporting should be regularly evaluated to ensure it is working effectively. After an incident is reported management needs to conduct an investigation, consider options for complaint resolution, and offer support to the complainant (by debriefing and counselling. Investigations should be conducted by an appropriate person (e.g. H&S manager, Equal Opportunity manager) and if the complaint is supported, an agreed strategy for resolution needs to be implemented. Both parties need to be informed of the decision, and options for resolution considered. Resolution of a complaint is a vital step in dealing with bullying in the workplace. The nature of resoluti on needs to be determined on a case by case basis, as each case is different. Training, counselling and discipline for the offender, counselling for the target, removal of the perpetrator and mediation, with an apology from the offender should all be considered possible paths to resolution. The offence, if substantiated should be recorded in the perpetrator's personnel file. To avoid any possible 'conflicts of interest' and to ensure people have confidence in the process the option of bringing in a skilled person from the outside should always be seriously considered an option. Every claim should be taken seriously and investigated discreetly and thoroughly Consultation should occur regarding the development of: - an awareness raising strategy - a no-bullying policy - procedures for reporting incidents - incident investigation procedures Consultation should also occur in relation to the following changes that may increase the risk of bullying: - job changes - organisational changes As an employer you should provide appropriate information about your policy and procedures on bullying when you: - recruit staff - provide induction training - engage contractors or supply services to others - appoint or promote managers and supervisors Seek help from a GP, WorkCover (131 050), a psychologist (The Australian Psychological Society has a national referral service, 1800 333 497) or a grass-roots organisation such as Beyond Bullying (http://cwpp.slq.qld.gov.au/bba). Disclaimer: The information provided on this page does not constitute treatment and in no way replaces direct advice from qualified professionals providing tailored solutions to particular workplaces and individuals. References O'Hagan, J. Bully Busters. The Sydney Morning Herald, July 20, 2002  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[20]=new Array("../members/members10.html","MKA Risk -  Papers and Reviews - Drugs in the Workplace","MKA Risk Paper on Drugs in the Workplace (17th Feb 2003) Authored by Michelle Sarkis ","Discussion Papers PAPERS Occupational Stress Performance Management Fatigue Management Conflict Resolution Employee Assistance Programs Harassment Prevention Drugs in the Workplace Drugs in the Workplace (17th Feb 2003) Authored by Michelle Sarkis Alcoholism and drug abuse are significant problems in the Australian workplace and both are linked to higher levels of stress among employees. For example Bass et al (1996) found that employees who use drugs have a relatively persistent pattern of absenteeism which is, of course, costly to the organization. In addition, their study also showed that drug use is related to employee tardiness as well as to absenteeism. Thus, the costs of drug use in employee lost time may be even greater than previo usly estimated. In addition to threatening their own well-being, employees who attend work while under the influence pose a serious threat to the well-being of their coworkers because they are more prone to on-the-job accidents. National surveys documented that drug abusers will have three to four times as many accidents on the job, and four to six times as many accidents off the job, compared with individuals free from alcohol and illegal drug usage (see Bass et al, 1996). The common perception about this issue us that it is a blue-collar issue and tends to be concentrated at the worker level and in 'safety critical' jobs. As a result, white-collar workers tend to be less interested. However, Ferguson (1994) found that the largest group of males consuming hazardous amounts of alcohol was skilled and semi-skilled workers. Symptoms of employee drug use (Stone, 1998) - deteriorating productivity - inappropriate or angry interactions with coworkers or customers - frequent absenteeism or lateness - continuous rapid or wandering speech - drowsiness or frequent breaks - changes in productivity after lunch - occasional, unpredictable flashes of outstanding performance - accidents, errors, carelessness or sloppy work - regularly borrowing money from co-workers - drunken behaviour, with or without the odor of alcohol - possession of drug paraphernalia - drug mottos on clothing or at workstation; drug inspired jewelry - possession of a variety of medicines While the issue of testing generates considerable debate, the introduction of workplace policies on drug and alcohol misuse is less contentious, although the extent of such policies is unknown. Tackling the problem is seen to be a joint responsibility of workers and management. Alcohol and other drugs council of Australia (ADCA)'s drug policy 2000 links the problem to occupational health and safety issues. It states that alcohol and other drug use is not just the cause of workplace accidents and lost productivity, it can also be the outcome of bad job design and poor working environment. That is, that the problem is not just about events outside the workplace. To develop an effective policy ADCA believes organisations should: (Mace, 2001) - ensure all stakeholders are involved in the discussion and drafting process - fully document the alcohol and drug policy - relate the policy to individual workers and their work environment - incorporate the policy into the OHS policy rather than keeping it as a separate, unrelated document - Not necessarily infringe workers' rights - Be fair and equitable - Cover all employees from executive level down - Clearly inform employees about the workplace policy - Provide opportunities for due process where supposed breaches occur - Include confidential referral, treatment and rehabilitation in the due process If organisations are to effectively deal with workplace substance abuse, a clear, unequivocal policy statement defining the rights and responsibilities of the employer and employee is essential. It should be developed after a detailed assessment survey and explain why it is being implemented. The policy should also give a clear description of prohibited substance abuse-related behaviours, a thorough explanation of the consequences for policy violations and an outline of all program elements, incl uding employee assistance. In addition, thorough ongoing training for supervisors and employees is also recommended. Once these actions are in place, an organisation can proactively deal with substance abuse Disclaimer: The information provided on this page does not constitute treatment and in no way replaces direct advice from qualified professionals providing tailored solutions to particular workplaces and individuals. References Bass, A.R., Bharucha-Reid, R., Delaplane-Harris, K., Schork, M.A., Kaufmann, R., McCann, D., Foxman, B., Fraser, W. & Cook, S. (1996). Employee drug use, demographic characteristics, work reaction and absenteeism. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(1), 92-99. Ferguson, A. (1994). Seconds out! The new way to fight executive stress' Business Review Weekly, 166(3), p.87. Mace, J. Powerful influences at work. March, 2001, pp20-25. Stone, R.J (1998). Human Resource Management (3rd Ed). Australia: John Wiley & Sons  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[21]=new Array("../products/products01.html","MKA Risk - Products - Workplace Bullying and Harrassment","MKA Risk Mitigation can help to create a positive workplace culture by assisting you to be saying goodbye to workplace bullying and harassment.","Products Menu items Goodbye Workplace Bullying Fatigue To Energy Occupational Stress Management Employee Assistance Programs Workplace Bullying Saying goodbye to bullying MKA: Risk Mitigation can help to create a positive workplace culture by: Creating Forums for Consultation Developing Policies for Prevention of Harassment and Bullying Creating Codes of Conduct Tailored to Individual Workplaces Policy Implementation and Awareness Training Executive Coaching Providing Anger Management/Assertiveness Counselling Assisting in Performance Management of Workplace Bullies Our products are based on industry surveys, current organisational behaviour research and relevant NSW and Federal Industrial Relations Commission decisions. What is bullying and harassment? Bullying and harassment are so common that they can be regarded as part of every day life. This is not to suggest that employers and workers should ever turn a blind eye to bullying or passively accept harassment as normal behaviour. Bullying can include physical aggression, shouting, name calling, denigrating others for their physical appearance, age, religion, sexual preferences or supposed work capacity. Bullying can cover a range of behaviours, and it is very difficult to define. Bullying will occur when there is a perceived power imbalance, and generally the bigger the imbalance the worse bullying becomes. It is a common phenomenon in workplaces where there is a rigid hierarchy, there is a big age/experience gap, there is intense time pressure and no consultation. Bullying is a particular problem with industries that have apprentices, juniors and associates. Warning signs that bullying is occurring include: High turnover of staff Complaints about management style Complaints about interactions with co-workers High levels of workplace conflict High levels of human resources complaints Greater than usual levels of absenteeism  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[22]=new Array("../products/products02.html","MKA Risk - Products - Fatigue Management","MKA Risk Mitigation can improve fatigue management through Fatigue Management and Turn Fatigue to Energy","Products Menu items Goodbye Workplace Bullying Fatigue To Energy Occupational Stress Management Employee Assistance Programs Fatigue Management Turning Fatigue to Energy MKA: Risk Mitigation can improve fatigue management through: Workforce surveys on fatigue recovery rates after work Fatigue education programs. Providing advice on shift patterns and rest breaks during shifts. Drug and alcohol education programs. Diet and stress management programs Evaluating job design and workplace processes. Our products are based on industry surveys, current organisational behaviour research and relevant NSW and Federal Industrial Relations Commission decisions. Why is Fatigue Management important? Fatigue is becoming an increasingly important issue. The Chain of Responsibility Legislation, as well as a federal review of fatigue standards, and the case of Campbell versus Hitchcock means that Fatigue is considered a key occupational health and safety issue. Fatigue can come from a range of sources such as inadequate rest breaks, poor performance management systems, failure to use rest time appropriately, sleep disorders, substance abuse and extended shift patterns. Signs of workforce fatigue include: Increased number of accidents at work Accidents outside of working hours and on weekends Workers falling asleep on the job Co-ordination problems caused by accumulated sleep debt Slurred speech not associated with drunkenness Substance abuse, particularly methylamphetamines INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[23]=new Array("../products/products03.html","MKA Risk - Products - Occupational Stress","MKA Risk Mitigation can help make your workplace as a stress free zone by reducing Occupational Stress and making your workplace a Stress Free Zone","Products Menu items Goodbye Workplace Bullying Fatigue To Energy Occupational Stress Management Employee Assistance Programs Occupational Stress Welcome to the Stress Free Zone MKA: Risk Mitigation can help make your workplace as a stress free zone by: Conducting organisational climate surveys. Running occupational stress prevention training. Leading lunchtime / breakfast seminars on time management, depression management and anxiety management. Providing Employee Assistance Programs. Evaluating job design and workplace processes. Our products are based on industry surveys, current organisational behaviour research and relevant NSW and Federal Industrial Relations Commission decisions. What is Occupational Stress? Occupational stress is a leading cause of absenteeism in Australia and is contributing to an increasing number of workers’ compensation claims. Occupational stress undermines personal productivity, as well as impacting on employees quality of life and providing society with a major health issue. Occupational stress has been described as any factor within the work environment contributing to poor psychological or physical health or psychological strain. Adverse consequences of occupational stress range from depression, anxiety, tension, burnout, alcohol abuse, unexplained physical symptoms and sick building syndrome, chronic fatigue, accidents, repetitive strain injury, increased daily hassles, days absent, visits to medical practitioners and lower overall ratings of health.  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[24]=new Array("../products/products04.html","MKA Risk - Products - Employee Assistance Programs","MKA Risk Mitigation can help with create a healthier workplace culture by employee assistance programs which deal with Workplace Conflicts, Family Stress, Relationship Difficulties, Occupational Stress, Referral for Drug and Alcohol Treatment, Executive Coaching and  Career Coaching","Products Menu items Goodbye Workplace Bullying Fatigue To Energy Occupational Stress Management Employee Assistance Programs Employee Assistance Programs What can EAP programs do for your organisation? MKA: Risk Mitigation can help with create a healthier workplace culture by employee assistance programs that deal with:/p> Workplace Conflicts and Mediation Family Stress Relationship Difficulties Occupational Stress Referral for Drug and Alcohol Treatment Executive Coaching Career Coaching Brief interventions for depression, anxiety and trauma responses Employee assistance programs are tailored to specific organisations and workforce demographics. Psychological services interventions are based on the most up to date organisational behaviour and clinical research. What are EAP Programs? Employee assistance programs involve the provision of three to five counselling sessions to workers and their families. An employee assistance program is invaluable in any workplace, particularly so when the incidence of mental health difficulties is taken into account. The prevalence of mental illness suggests that the statistics are against employers when it comes to hiring employees who do not have a mental health condition. Consider 1 in 10 adults will suffer from major depression at any time, 3 in 100 adults suffer from panic disorders, 1 in 100 suffers from schizophrenia, and 5 in 100 adults are alcoholics, (See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV-TR, 2000). This means that in a workplace of approximately 100 employees, there is a probability that at least ten of these employees require treatment for a condition that directly undermines their workplace productivity. Employee assistance programs support human resources managers and supervisors in dealing with the “welfare aspects” of supporting employees. These are the problems that directly impact on an employee’s productivity; but which fall beyond the control of the workplace to eliminate. INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[25]=new Array("../projects/project02.html","MKA Risk - Successes in Occupational Stress Prevention ","MKA Risk Mitigation Success in Combating Occupational Stress in a state wide program of occupational stress prevention training and counselling intervention by 74% decrease in the number of stress claims.","Projects Case Studies Reducing Claims by 98% at Elf Mushrooms Commercial Farm and achieving the position of a finalist in one of six catergories in the National Safety Council of Australia's annual Awards for Excellence in 2005. Occupational Stress Prevention  Occupational Stress Prevention Success in Combating Stress Here we feature our case study of an occupational stress prevention project where we cut stress claims by 74%. The project was a state wide program of occupational stress prevention training and counselling intervention. The project ran over a period of twelve months from 2003-2004, with just over 100 participants. At the end of 12 months, The sponsoring insurance company reported back to MKA Risk Mitigation, that there had been a 74% decrease in the number of stress claims. Training was conducted in metropolitan and rural locations. The project was sponsored by a Workers Compensation Insurer and the Insured Organisation. The Insured Organisation was a church, and the target occupational group were religious ministers. There was a clear recognition that occupational stress was a significant problem within the insured organisation. Stress claims were described by claims officers as a common occurrence. Further when claims did occur, claimants were extremely severely incapacitated and were often off work for substantial period of time. A number of claimants were unable to sustain any form of return to work. They were eventually described as totally and permanently incapacitated. Emerging areas of concern were: How to introduce change into the workplace. How to manage time and prioritise effectively. Assertiveness and basic communication skills. Anger management. How to resolve conflict. Team building and how to delegate work. Work – life/ balance and social support. Occupational stress prevention. Managing depression and anxiety. Managing suicidalindividuals. Effective self talk and motivational strategies. Defusing guilt. Maintaining professional boundaries. A draft of the training program was developed and presented to the Church executive, who requested various additional materials. Their suggestions were incorporated. The other very important part of the process was the involvement of an adult education specialist. As an organisational psychologist, I would write training modules that would “clunk” rather than “communicate”. So I turned my material over to the adult education specialist, and say to her, "keep the information and the learning objectives, but make it fun and alive". To my eternal gratitude, the adult education specialist did exactly that.  Conducting the Training Program It became apparent right from the first training program, that we were still presenting the materials in a fashion that was “too secular.” We were receiving wonderful evaluations, but it was felt by both the adult education specialist and myself that the material was not being absorbed as completely as we would like. So I took an additional step in customising the material and presented it to a theologian. I requested that the theologian provide me with an explanation of relevant biblical arguments about the materials we were presenting. The result was that interaction in the training courses suddenly moved up a notch from being “appreciated and regarded as informative” to a real point of engagement and valuable debate. Suddenly the trainees were as passionate as the adult education specialist and myself in considering these matters of occupational stress. This process of enculturation continued throughout the entire time that we were running these programs. I would frequently go to my hotel room in some remote rural location, ring up my theologian friend and say “they threw this at me as a challenge, what does this actually mean?” We would then work together on how this information could be better conveyed within the trainees’ frame of reference. Sufficient to say the adult education specialist and I learned a great deal from this process.  Counselling Interventions MKA Risk Mitigation had incorporated a basic measure of clinical stress conditions, which we had asked people to complete before the start of the training program. This provided us with a baseline measure of where trainees were at with respect to depression, anxiety and stress. I began following up participants for the first counselling session at approximately one to four months after training interventions. The purpose of the first set of counselling sessions was to track whether people were actually implementing the training; and to commit them to putting the training into practice. The session went through objectives from each training module and I would interview people about how they were implementing material from each module. We resent the stress measures out to people to complete, and eventually obtained a 77% return rate. The second set of stress measures were taken six months after we had done the training intervention. 23% of ministers obtained an initial stress score which placed them as suffering from mild to extremely severe stress levels. Ministers with elevated stress scores reported that they would be upset by trivial matters, over-reacting to situations, finding difficult to relax, using lots of emotional energy, feeling impatient if delayed in any way, irritable, finding it hard to calm down after being upset, finding it difficult to tolerate interruptions and being agitated. These ministers were unable to balance work and family obligations. Stress scores taken six months after training revealed that there were no cases in the extremely severe stress range, severe cases had declined by 3%, moderate cases by 1%, and mild cases had declined by 5%. This represents a total decline of 10% of total cases in the clinical ranges, (or roughly halving of clinical score range cases). Comparison on a score against score basis (as opposed to shifts across clinical bands) revealed that 70% of trainees were reporting a reduction in stress scores. In the second follow-up interview trainees were questioned about which modules they were implementing. Training participants indicated that they were most likely to implement Time Management Training (38.37%) and occupational stress prevention (39.53%). Training Participants reported increased use of lists, daily planning, prioritisation and reducing the number of tasks attempted per day. Close to half of these ministers reported that they had applied the administrative training in the Paperwork Management Module (15%). In terms of occupational stress management strategies, Ministers and their wives reported that they were now attempting to reduce the number of working hours, had adopted some form of regular exercise, were establishing more regular communication with their peers, and had begun to implement strategies for managing insomnia. This ties in with 12.26% of participants choosing to spend more time with their families. Team Building was next most common module that was being put into practice (29%). The implementation of this module was quite varied. Some ministers had taken their elders and church support structure through the team building module. Other ministers had informally considered the match between their interpersonal style and those they had to work with. Ministers had then used material from the team building module to better accommodate different interpersonal styles; and reported an increased understanding of colleagues who had a different interpersonal approach. A significant number of ministers reported an increase in assertiveness as modelled in the course, (19.76%), indicating that they were more likely to firmly manage boundaries to protect time management structures and days off. A sizeable percentage of Ministers (19.76%) reported implementing the conflict resolution module outlined in the course and application of strategies such as defusing and assertive delay in reducing conflicts. Ministers also reported application of the conflict resolution module when mediating between parishioners. It seemed that a positive result in the conflict resolution area was enhanced through improved listening skills and negotiation (10.4%). We were in a very fortunate position to also have monetary measures of the project’s effectiveness with the 74% decrease in the number of stress claims. The next steps arsing from this project were to develop plans for permanent structures to reduce occupational stress. To summarise the key strategies for preventing occupational stress in this group were: Reducing the number of hours ministers were working. Helping ministers to clarify job role boundaries and priorities. Encouraging them to spend time with their families and colleagues. Teaching ministers how to delegate. Encouraging ministers to exercise. Promoting effective conflict resolution strategies.  INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[26]=new Array("../general/sitemap.html","MKA Risk - Specialist intervention in Business Risk Mitigation","MKA Risk Mitigation is a group of organisational psychologists clinical psychologists, adult educators, dieticians and drug and alcohol counsellors who work with managers and workers to identify and reduce human resources risk.","Site Map Instructions: You can either click on any section of the image to go to the relevant page referenced by the Flowchart or Use the Search facility to the top right and type in your reference term you wish to search for and a list of pages onthis site with the search term will be displayed to facilitate direct access to the page required. INDEX, FOLLOW");
sQ1[27]=new Array("../news/news02.html","MKA Risk -  NEWS on Workplace bullying Risk Management","MKA Risk Mitigation Success in Combating Occupational Stress in a state wide program of occupational stress prevention training and counselling intervention by 74% decrease in the number of stress claims.","News and Events Read the recent newsletters brought out by MKARISK Read the Review of thelatest court cases on the impact of workplace bullying and read about the National Recognition given by the Safety Council of Australia to MKA Risk in the latest Newsletter  Changing a workplace culture of bullying and violence Source: WorkplaceOHS Date: 20/9/05  http://www.workplaceohs.com.au/alert/2005/050920459.htm?43329.89 Workplace cultures of bullying and violence can have catastrophic effects on productivity, but the solutions are relatively easy to implement, according to an expert in changing workplace cultures. Martha Knox-Haly – an organisational psychologist who works with businesses to promote team building and prevent occupational stress and bullying – says it can take as little as ‘two weeks’ to turn around a dysfunctional workplace culture. Working on relationships In other cases, she and her colleagues at MKA: Risk Mitigation will spend three or four months working closely with both management and employees, teaching skills such as effective communication, conflict resolution and stress management techniques. Knox-Haly, who will be a special guest speaker at a NSCA Sydney seminar tomorrow (see details below), says her methods have been successful in achieving a reduction of 70-100% in stress claims, as well as a reduction of 50-100% in physical lost time injuries. The potential savings to organisations can be in the ‘hundreds of thousands’ of dollars, she said. After conducting a risk assessment, which includes assessing workplace attitudes with a culture survey and reviewing workers compensation data and injury statistics, she designs a program to help ‘management and workers to have a viable working relationship’. Her methods range from executive coaching, team building sessions and fatigue management training, to strategies designed to ‘build alliances’ at all levels across an organisation. Call centre workers hung up on personal conflict In a small call centre of about 50 employees, Knox-Haly’s program resulted in workers compensation statistics falling from half a dozen claims in the year before the program was introduced, to none in the year after it was implemented. The manager had some health problems which meant that he rarely left his office to talk to the front line staff on the floor, Knox-Haly said. He also developed relationships mainly with ‘high performance employees’. ‘Often good performers tend to be very task-focused, and are often seen as very abrupt and not good communicators’, Knox-Haly said. In this workplace, the high performers were seen by others to be ‘leveraging’ their favoured positions to bully poorer performers and part-timers, or those who wanted to do training courses. Knox-Haly arranged for some good strong supervisors who could support the manager in handling staff issues, and she implemented a team building program where issues could be talked about more openly. Communication styles There were ‘very hostile’ and unexpressed negative feelings in the workplace, Knox-Haly said, but rather than being talked about openly, people were ‘gossiping behind each other's backs’. A key part of the program was to teach staff effective communication methods and conflict resolution techniques. Follow up sessions involved one-on-one coaching and reinforcement of the key messages; employees were asked how they had used the skills they’d been taught in the workplace. Effective communication is a key to a productive workplace, and you don’t want to lose otherwise good employees because of their personal styles, Knox-Haly said. ‘You don’t want to write someone off just because they have an unfortunate manner’, she said. Where possible it is better to deal with these problems informally. ‘Make it quite clear that the way they are perceived as behaving is not OK before you bring in performance management [processes] and disciplinary procedures’. Knox-Haly’s three key tips Teach managers how to do performance management effectively – so that they motivate people without punishing them or by using heavy-handed approaches. Teach managers how to create good relationships in the workplace. Ensure you have an anti-bullying policy in place. Seminar details Martha Knox-Haly will be addressing a NSCA seminar at Harris Park in Sydney on the issue of bullying and how it undermines corporate strategic performance this Wednesday 21 September from 4.30pm-6.00pm. For more information, contact Kate Allen on 02 9687-6299 or email, kate.allen@nsca.org.au. Note: Some of the details in this story have been altered to protect the privacy of the workplace involved. INDEX, FOLLOW");

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